This review highlights the significant sex-based differences in immune responses to influenza infection and vaccination. Men are generally more susceptible to severe influenza outcomes, while women often mount stronger immune responses but experience more adverse effects. These disparities are influenced by biological factors, including sex hormones and genes, as well as gender-related social and environmental conditions. Evidence from both human and animal studies reveals sex-specific variations in antibody production, vaccine effectiveness, and clinical outcomes. Age, hormonal status, and stress further modulate these differences. Understanding these complex interactions is essential for developing tailored and equitable vaccination and treatment strategies.

Immuno-materials, which represent a confluence of immunology and materials science, are dramatically transforming the fields of healthcare. Through the targeted modulation of immune responses, these innovative materials offer promising avenues for advancements in vaccine development, immunotherapy, tissue engineering, and diagnostics. This review examines the fundamental principles of immuno-materials, elucidating key concepts and methodologies pertinent to their development. We investigate strategies for engineering materials that can elicit customized immune responses, capable of both stimulation and suppression, and we discuss their potential roles as adjuvants, carriers, or scaffolds. Furthermore, we address the challenges and opportunities associated with the clinical translation of these materials, emphasizing the critical importance of biocompatibility, safety, and efficacy. This review aims to critically evaluate and contextualize the transformative potential of immuno-materials, mapping their journey from laboratory design to proven clinical applications in enhancing human health.

In recent years the number of publications reporting the use of the neutrophil/lymphocyte ratio (NLR) in disparate fields of human and veterinary medicine has swelled in the medical literature from less than 50/year in 2010 to 892 in 2019, and this figure has more than doubled up to 1,857 in 2024 [1].