The glucocorticoid receptor (GR) signaling pathway is essential for supporting the integrity of the intestinal barrier, regulating the gut microbiome, and preserving systemic homeostasis in critically ill patients. GR signaling limits bacterial translocation and systemic inflammation by suppressing pro-inflammatory cytokines, reinforcing tight junction proteins, and promoting epithelial renewal. Additionally, physiological levels of glucocorticoids (GCs) stimulate glutamine and proline metabolism, supporting intestinal maturation, with potential clinical relevance. GR signaling modulates inter-organ communication via the gut-lung and gut-brain axes, improving outcomes. Probiotics enhance GC therapy by restoring microbial balance, increasing short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) production, and modulating immune responses. Vitamins A, C, D, and E contribute to gut resilience by stabilizing tight junctions, mitigating oxidative stress, and strengthening mucosal immunity. Specifically, vitamin D balances T-cell subsets and promotes antimicrobial peptides; vitamin C supports collagen synthesis, antioxidant defenses, and immune function; vitamin A promotes immune tolerance and epithelial regeneration; and vitamin E mitigates oxidative damage and excessive cytokine release. GCs, probiotics, and vitamins counteract key drivers of critical illness, including hyperinflammation and dysbiosis, while maintaining strong safety profiles. This integrative approach leverages these interventions’ distinct yet complementary roles to provide a multi-layered defense against gut dysfunction. GCs reduce excessive inflammation and restore immune balance; probiotics enhance microbial diversity and strengthen gut-associated immunity; and vitamins support epithelial integrity and antioxidant defenses. Targeting multiple pathways simultaneously protects the gut barrier and modulates systemic immunity, potentially reducing complications such as sepsis, multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS), and prolonged intensive care unit (ICU) stays. Incorporating these elements into critical care practice offers a novel strategy to mitigate gut dysfunction, reduce systemic inflammation, and enhance immune resilience. This approach may lower infection rates, decrease the incidence of sepsis and MODS, and accelerate recovery by targeting GR signaling, restoring microbial homeostasis, and reinforcing epithelial integrity.

Iatrogenic hypoparathyroidism is a serious complication that can arise from neck surgery, predominantly during thyroidectomy, parathyroidectomy, and laryngectomy; it can be transient or permanent, requiring lifelong treatment. Early detection and treatment are crucial to prevent severe hypocalcemia, which is potentially fatal. This case report describes a 59-year-old male with a history of well-differentiated squamous cell carcinoma of the vocal cords who developed severe postoperative hypoparathyroidism following total laryngectomy with right hemithyroidectomy. Despite initial treatment with cholecalciferol by nasogastric tube, the patient experienced recurrent severe hypocalcemia, requiring intravenous administration of calcitriol due to his inability to swallow. This case highlights the risk factors for triggering postoperative hypoparathyroidism, such as previous surgery or radiotherapy in the cervical region, underlines the importance of careful monitoring of postoperative hypoparathyroidism and proposes the use of intravenous calcitriol as an effective strategy in acute treatment when oral administration is not feasible.

Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) is essential for alleviating menopausal symptoms and mitigating complications linked to type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in postmenopausal women. Studies indicate that HRT may contribute to better glycemic control, improved lipid metabolism, and enhanced kidney function, which could help lower the risk of diabetes-related complications. Early initiation of HRT near menopause has shown cognitive and metabolic benefits, while transdermal estrogen is preferred for women with cardiovascular risk due to its safer profile. However, HRT is associated with risks, including thromboembolic events and increased risks of breast and endometrial cancers, necessitating individualized evaluations. Despite its potential, significant gaps remain regarding HRT’s long-term safety and efficacy, its interaction with modern diabetes therapies, and its impact on diverse populations. The optimization of estrogen replacement therapy (ERT) strategies requires further exploration, particularly regarding patient screening, individualized treatment regimens, and personalization of care based on risk factors such as metabolic status, cardiovascular health, and diabetes severity. Current evidence supports the cautious use of HRT in strictly screened postmenopausal women with T2DM, adhering to key principles including early intervention (within 10 years of menopause), low-dose and short-duration therapy (usually < 5 years), and integration of lifestyle interventions (e.g., diet, exercise). Future research should focus on defining clear screening criteria, optimizing treatment regimens, and personalizing ERT to maximize benefits while mitigating risks. This review examines the benefits, risks, and optimization strategies of HRT in postmenopausal women with T2DM. It focuses on its metabolic, cardiovascular, cognitive, and renal effects and emphasizes personalized treatment approaches.

Pediatric adrenocortical tumors (pACTs) are rare endocrine neoplasms with variable prognosis, commonly associated with germline pathogenic variants (PVs) in the tumor suppressor gene TP53. Here, we report the case of a 3.1-year-old female presenting with virilization and Cushing syndrome due to a left-sided adrenal mass. The tumor was completely resected and confirmed as stage II adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) based on the Wieneke index. Comprehensive molecular profiling revealed heterozygous germline PVs in BRCA2 [c.9382C>T p.(Arg3128*)] and CHEK2 [c.1232G>A p.(Trp411*)]. These findings suggest a potential role of impaired DNA damage repair in ACC pathogenesis, as both PVs are associated with hereditary breast and ovarian cancer (HBOC) syndromes and genomic instability. This case expands the genetic spectrum of pACT and underscores the importance of advanced molecular analyses in identifying rare germline alterations that may inform personalized treatment strategies and cancer prevention programs. Although no additional treatment was required in this case, BRCA2 status highlights the potential for tailored therapeutic approaches, including poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitors, in selected patients. Further research is warranted to explore the specific contributions of BRCA2 and CHEK2 PVs to ACC tumorigenesis and their implic ations for targeted therapies.

Diabetes mellitus is a major risk factor for both cardiovascular and chronic kidney disease (CKD) while CKD is also associated with cardiovascular morbidity. In fact, cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death in patients with diabetes mainly from heart failure or myocardial infarction. The newer therapeutic agents in diabetes have positive impact on both cardiovascular and renal outcomes. Thus, the American Diabetes Association (ADA)’s annual update on the Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes is an important resource for all caregivers involved in diabetes management as it incorporates the latest scientific research, clinical evidence, and emerging technologies in diabetes management. The 2025 guidelines present significant updates that reflect a deeper understanding of diabetes management, emphasizing expanded usage of technologies such as continuous glucose monitoring, personalized pharmacological approaches, and lifestyle interventions. This commentary provides an analysis of the key updates in the 2025 ADA guidelines exploring implications for clinical practice, laboratory assessments, and public health policy. Where relevant, comparisons to the 2024 version will be made.

Obesity is a multifactorial disease linked to many comorbidities and has an impact on brain health. It is also known that obesity disrupts the endocannabinoid (eCB) system in the central nervous system and in the periphery, which complicates the underlying mechanisms behind obesity. However, weight loss through lifestyle interventions or bariatric surgery may alleviate obesity-related comorbidities, as well as restore eCB tone. Several studies have reported a decrease in circulating eCBs following weight loss, likely due to the positive association of these mediators with fat mass. However, further research is needed to clarify whether this reduction is a consequence of weight loss or plays a role in facilitating it. This review explores changes in circulating eCBs following weight loss and their potential roles in cerebral homeostasis and the reward system. It examines how lifestyle modifications and bariatric surgery may influence central eCB signalling and contribute to long-term weight loss success. Understanding the mechanisms behind improved brain function after weight loss could provide insights into optimizing obesity treatments.