Immuno-materials, which represent a confluence of immunology and materials science, are dramatically transforming the fields of healthcare. Through the targeted modulation of immune responses, these innovative materials offer promising avenues for advancements in vaccine development, immunotherapy, tissue engineering, and diagnostics. This review examines the fundamental principles of immuno-materials, elucidating key concepts and methodologies pertinent to their development. We investigate strategies for engineering materials that can elicit customized immune responses, capable of both stimulation and suppression, and we discuss their potential roles as adjuvants, carriers, or scaffolds. Furthermore, we address the challenges and opportunities associated with the clinical translation of these materials, emphasizing the critical importance of biocompatibility, safety, and efficacy. This review aims to critically evaluate and contextualize the transformative potential of immuno-materials, mapping their journey from laboratory design to proven clinical applications in enhancing human health.

In recent years the number of publications reporting the use of the neutrophil/lymphocyte ratio (NLR) in disparate fields of human and veterinary medicine has swelled in the medical literature from less than 50/year in 2010 to 892 in 2019, and this figure has more than doubled up to 1,857 in 2024 [1].

Neoantigen vaccines are a promising strategy in cancer immunotherapy that leverage tumor-specific mutations to elicit targeted immune responses. Although they have considerable potential, development challenges related to antigen prediction accuracy, manufacturing complexity, and scalability remain key obstacles to their widespread clinical use. This literature review was conducted using PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar databases to identify relevant studies. Keywords included “neoantigen vaccines,” “personalized cancer immunotherapy,” “tumor heterogeneity,” “bioinformatics pipelines,” and “prediction algorithms”. Clinical trial data were sourced from ClinicalTrials.gov, Trialtrove, and other publicly available registries. Eligible studies included peer-reviewed research articles, systematic reviews, and clinical trials focusing on neoantigen vaccine development, bioinformatic strategies, and immunotherapy. Tumor heterogeneity and clonal evolution significantly impact vaccine efficacy, necessitating multi-epitope targeting and adaptive vaccine design. Current neoantigen prediction algorithms suffer from high false-positive and false-negative rates, requiring further integration with multi-omics data and machine learning to enhance accuracy. Manufacturing remains complex, time-intensive, and costly, necessitating advancements in standardization and automation. Combination therapies, such as immune checkpoint inhibitors and adoptive cell therapies, counteract the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, improving treatment outcomes. Neoantigen vaccines hold great potential for personalized cancer therapy but require advancements in bioinformatics, manufacturing scalability, and immunomodulatory strategies to enhance clinical efficacy. Continued research and interdisciplinary collaboration are essential for refining clinical applications.