Aim: Hypertriglyceridemia is linked to increased risk of diabetes diagnosis, incidence, and mortality. However, whether individuals with normal triglyceride levels (i.e., < 1.7 mmol/L) uniformly exhibit low diabetes risk remains underexplored. Specifically, it is unclear whether triglyceride levels within the normal range are associated with plasma glucose levels and the prevalence of type 2 diabetes (T2DM). This study aimed to address these gaps by examining the associations between triglyceride levels and fasting plasma glucose, as well as between triglyceride levels and T2DM, in individuals with triglycerides in the normal range. Methods: This cross-sectional study included 16,706 Chinese adults with triglyceride levels below 1.7 mmol/L. Among them, 1,067 had T2DM. Associations between triglyceride levels and fasting plasma glucose were assessed using linear regression, while associations with T2DM were evaluated using binary logistic regression. The optimal triglyceride cut-off for T2DM diagnosis was determined via receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis. Results: Triglyceride levels were positively associated with fasting plasma glucose after multivariate adjustment (β = 0.034, P < 0.001). A one-unit increase in the natural log of triglyceride levels was associated with a 61% higher adjusted odds of T2DM [odds ratio (OR), 1.61; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.19–2.17; P = 0.002]. The optimal triglyceride cut-off for T2DM diagnosis was 1.09 mmol/L. Participants with triglyceride levels ≥ 1.09 mmol/L had a 28% higher odds of T2DM (OR, 1.28; 95% CI, 1.07–1.53; P = 0.006) compared to those with levels below the cut-off. Conclusions: Among individuals with normal triglyceride levels, higher triglyceride concentrations were associated with higher odds of T2DM diagnosis, with an optimal diagnostic cut-off of 1.09 mmol/L. These findings suggest that adults with triglyceride levels more than 1.09 mmol/L may benefit from closer monitoring for T2DM development.

A pro-inflammatory state with elevated cytokines influenced by both environmental and genetic factors is a key characteristic of both type 1 diabetes (T1DM) and type 2 diabetes (T2DM). Cytokines promote immune cell infiltration and degradation of the pancreatic islets, which play a direct role in the development of insulin resistance in T1DM. Cytokines also interfere with insulin signaling pathways and lead to metabolic dysfunction, contributing to the development of insulin resistance in patients with T2DM. In this narrative review, we have discussed the mechanisms of action and specific effects on insulin resistance of different cytokines, the influence of single-nucleotide polymorphisms and genetic factors that alter cytokine levels, and the development of insulin resistance. Further, we have discussed the complication of diabetes with a focus on diabetic foot ulcers, wounds, impaired wound healing, and reduced angiogenesis in association with the role of cytokines. Finally, the discussion addresses interventions for managing cytokines, such as Treg-based therapies, along with the various challenges presented by therapies targeting cytokine dysregulation and their effects on insulin resistance.

Osteoporosis is a disabling disease with a significant impact on the global population, particularly among older men and postmenopausal women. Several factors contribute to the increasing prevalence of osteoporosis, including greater life expectancy and the absence of symptoms in its early stages. The morbidity, mortality, and substantial economic burden associated with osteoporosis, especially due to hip fractures and related complications, constitute a major public health concern. Diagnosis should involve a comprehensive biochemical profile, along with additional tests to rule out secondary causes, which are often underdiagnosed and can influence the progression of the disease. Preventive measures and early diagnosis are essential to maintaining bone health and preventing fractures and disability. This review will focus on the definition, diagnostic approach, and key considerations prior to initiating treatment in patients with osteoporosis. Fracture risk prediction tools, including Fracture Risk Assessment Tool (FRAX), and treatment strategies are not addressed, as this review focuses on the appropriate diagnostic evaluation of osteoporosis and the systematic exclusion of secondary causes.