Immunity is usually classified into two categories: innate immunity and adaptive immunity, distinguished by the process and characteristics of the immunological impact. It was widely assumed that only adaptive immunity possessed memory features; however, current research has revealed that innate immunity, like adaptive immunity, possesses memory properties as well. “Trained immunity”, also known as “innate immune memory”, is a phenomenon that occurs when the immune system’s innate cells are stimulated and then undergo epigenetic reprogramming and metabolic alterations. When it comes to innate immunity, macrophages are essential since they have immunological memory capabilities and play a significant role in the body’s immunity. The concept of innate immune memory expands the definition of immunological memory and offers a broader view of immune response research. This article reviews the properties, mechanism, and significance of macrophage innate immune memory in disease.

“There is many a slip twist the cup and the lip” is a proverb that dates back to the 3rd century. This proverb comes to mind while writing a review on pregnancy loss; so many complications can occur between fertilization and development of the embryo through the long period of gestation until successful delivery of the baby. These include failure of implantation of the embryo, spontaneous miscarriage in the first trimester, pre-eclampsia in the second trimester, premature rupture of fetal membranes, pre-term labour, and pre-term delivery. The maternal immune system which does a phenomenal job of protecting the host from a daunting variety of infections, sometimes also mounts adverse reactions that complicate pregnancy and endanger the fetus. Maternal immune reactions that can adversely affect pregnancy have been shown to be mediated by lymphocytes, macrophages and natural killer cells, and by cytokines secreted by these cellular effectors. This review summarizes the deleterious effects of cytokines leading to recurrent spontaneous miscarriage, pre-eclampsia and pre-term delivery, which are the major complications of pregnancy. It then goes on to discuss the potential use of progesterone and dydrogesterone, an orally-administered progestogen, as immunomodulatory molecules that can be considered for the prevention and/or treatment of these complications.

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is one of the most frequently observed endocrinopathies among women of reproductive age that redound to subfertility. The specific etiology of this heterogenic syndrome remains ambiguous. Metabolic complications, hormonal imbalance, deregulation in the immune system and their interrelationship make PCOS more complex. Hyperandrogenism and chronic low-grade inflammation modulate each other and enhance the self-perpetuation of PCOS. Even though there are many literature studies on PCOS and immune deregulation, this review focuses on the endocrine-immune nexus and how the altered endocrine system is embroiled in the immunopathology of PCOS.

Conventional immunohistochemistry methods though once fundamental for the individual staining of cell markers, have now been superseded by multispectral immunohistochemistry (mIHC). mIHC enables simultaneous detection of multiple cell markers in situ using single formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissue sections. In addition to conserving patient tissue specimens, the ability to visualise more than one marker on individual cells allows for further refining of cell phenotypes, and provides insight into cell-to-cell interactions and spatial arrangements across single tissue sections. Here, a comprehensive protocol is described for the in situ interrogation of γδ T cells and phosphoantigen-presenting butyrophilin (BTN) molecules (BTN2A1 and BTN3A1) in human FFPE tissue using Opal™ tyramide signal amplification (TSA)-based mIHC. It is demonstrated that an effectively optimised Opal™-TSA 7-marker [CD3, Pan-γδ T cell receptor (TCR), granzyme B, BTN2A1, BTN3A1, tumour marker, 4’,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI)] mIHC panel can be used to define the presence, localisation, and activation status of γδ T cells and the BTN2A1 and BTN3A1 ligands.

Among decidual immune cells, regulatory T cells (Tregs) have been unanimously recognized as central contributors to tolerance and maintenance of healthy pregnancy. Numerical and functional downregulation of Tregs or disturbed interaction of Tregs with trophoblasts and other immune cells have been linked to early pregnancy loss such as idiopathic infertility and miscarriage and later-onset adverse pregnancy outcomes including preeclampsia. This review focuses on the mechanisms for regulating the generation, expansion, and function of Tregs, the roles of Tregs in maintaining maternal immune tolerance through crosstalk with trophoblasts and other decidual regulatory immune cells, and how Tregs may play foes to pregnancy and contribute to the programming of pregnancy-related complications. Therapeutic options for implantation failure and adverse pregnancy outcomes are now part of the emerging significance of Tregs in pregnancy tolerance and maintenance.

Humans are afflicted by a wide spectrum of autoimmune disorders, ranging from those affecting just one or a few organs to those associated with more systemic effects. In most instances, the etiology of such disorders remains unknown; a consequence of this lack of knowledge is a lack of specific treatment options. Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is the prototypic systemic autoimmune disorder; pathology is believed to be antibody-mediated, and multiple organs are targeted. Periods of disease “flares” are often followed by long periods of remission. The fact that SLE is more commonly observed in females, and also that it more particularly manifests in females in the reproductive age group, has quite naturally drawn attention to the potential roles that hormones play in disease onset and progression. This review attempts to shed light on the influences that key hormones might have on disease indicators and pathology. Databases (Google Scholar, PubMed) were searched for the following keywords (sometimes in certain combinations), in conjunction with the term “lupus” or “SLE”: autoantibodies, recurrent abortion, polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS), preeclampsia, pre-term delivery, estrogens, progesterone, androgens, prolactin, leptin, human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). Cited publications included both research articles and reviews.

Cancer immunotherapy, especially T-cell driven targeting, has significantly evolved and improved over the past decade, paving the way to treat previously refractory cancers. Hematologic malignancies, given their direct tumor accessibility and less immunosuppressive microenvironment compared to solid tumors, are better suited to be targeted by cellular immunotherapies. Gamma delta (γδ) T cells, with their unique attributes spanning the entirety of the immune system, make a tantalizing therapeutic platform for cancer immunotherapy. Their inherent anti-tumor properties, ability to act like antigen-presenting cells, and the advantage of having no major histocompatibility complex (MHC) restrictions, allow for greater flexibility in their utility to target tumors, compared to their αβ T cell counterpart. Their MHC-independent anti-tumor activity, coupled with their ability to be easily expanded from peripheral blood, enhance their potential to be used as an allogeneic product. In this review, the potential of utilizing γδ T cells to target hematologic malignancies is described, with a specific focus on their applicability as an allogeneic adoptive cellular therapy product.

Obesity has become a worldwide scourge, affecting more than 10% of adults worldwide. While widely recognized to be associated with increased incidence of medical conditions such as diabetes mellitus and atherosclerosis, obesity also accounts for 9% of the cancer burden in some populations. This is due in part to perturbation of protective immune mechanisms involving natural killer cells, macrophages, and neutrophils. Recent studies indicate that γδ T cells play a prominent protective role against cancer, but in some circumstances are detrimental and pro tumorogenic. In this review, the current scientific literature was explored to determine whether and how obesity affects the anti- and pro-tumoral functions of γδ T cells. Considerable perturbations of γδ T cells by obesity were revealed, suggesting that the “obesity-γδ T cell axis” may profoundly impact the increased incidence of cancer in obese individuals and is worthy of further study.

Lower respiratory tract infections caused over 4 million deaths per year worldwide, especially in low-income countries. Viral respiratory infections often occur as rapidly spreading seasonal endemic or epidemic, and sometimes due to new respiratory viruses including corona viruses. The first level of host defense against viral infection is based on the innate immune system and intracellular killing mechanisms. The latter is activated by the release of viral DNA or RNA into the cytosol of the infected cells during the initial phase of virus replication. Viral DNA and RNA are recognized by the cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP)-adenosine monophosphate (AMP) synthase (cGAS)–stimulator of interferon (IFN) genes (STING) sensing pathway, leading to the activation of type-I and -III IFN synthesis, with the aim to limit viral replication. However, the efficacy of the cGAS-STING sensing mechanism seems to vary with different viruses, and therefore, so is the efficacy of the host defense mechanism. Viral DNA can be sensed by different proteins including DNA-dependent activator of IFN regulating factor (DAI), cGAS, and toll-like receptor-9 (TLR-9). Viral RNA is recognized by retinoid acid-inducible gene 1 (RIG-1), TLR-7 and TLR-8. The question if cGAS also recognizes viral RNA remains unclear. The activation of IFN synthesis by cGAS is initiated by the recognition of purines and pyrimidines and their enzymatic conversion into cGMP and cyclic AMP (cAMP), followed by the activation of STING. In addition, it is indicated that several viruses can evade the cGAS-STING signaling and escape the host defense. This review aims to summarize the role of cGAS-STING as a host defense mechanism against viral respiratory tract infections.

Treatment of sepsis currently relies on eliminating the causal pathogen and supportive care, whereas almost no approaches to interfere with the defining event of a “dysregulated host response” are available. This review points to the striking correlation of two phenotypes of sepsis etiopathology with the concept of bipartite response patterns of higher organisms to microbial attacks. According to this concept, the phenotypes of sepsis can be interpreted as either resistance or tolerance responses to infection that got out of hand. This concept might allow focusing sepsis research and related patient studies on key conundrums of current sepsis research: how do resistance responses result in immunopathology and how can tolerance lead to systemic immunosuppression or even immunoparalysis? The heuristic vigor of these questions might inspire experimental efforts and clinical studies and ultimately advance the therapeutic armamentarium for sepsis care.

Self-replicating RNA viruses have been commonly used for preventive and therapeutic interventions in the fields of infectious diseases and cancers. Both RNA viruses with single-stranded RNA genomes of positive and negative polarity have been utilized. Expression of viral surface proteins from self-replicating RNA virus vectors has elicited strong immune responses and provided protection against challenges with lethal doses of pathogens in various animal models using recombinant viral particles, RNA replicons, or plasmid-based replicon vectors. Similarly, immunization with self-replicating RNA virus vectors expressing tumor antigens has induced tumor-specific antibody (Ab) responses, inhibited tumor growth, eradicated tumors, and protected immunized animals against tumor challenges. Clinical trials have demonstrated good safety and tolerance of self-replicating RNA viruses. Although the number of clinical trials is low, robust immune responses and protection against challenges with pathogens and tumor cells have been achieved. The Ervebo vaccine against Ebola virus disease has been approved by both the European Medicines Agency (EMA) and the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA).

The crown-like shaped viruses known as coronaviruses which were first reported in the 1960’s have caused three epidemics in the past two decades namely, coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19), severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS). SARS coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) was first reported in the latter half of December in Wuhan, a city of China, with people affected by deadly pneumonia with unknown etiology. Since then, the world has experienced two phases of virus spread with different symptoms and disease severity. This review embarks on the journey to investigate candidate molecules of this virus which can and are being investigated for various vaccine formulations and to discuss immunity developed against this virus.

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a common neurological disease in the elderly, and the major manifestations are cognitive dysfunction, neuronal loss, and neuropathic lesions in the brain. In the process of AD pathogenesis, the inflammatory response plays an indispensable role. The nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptor family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome containing NOD, leucine-rich repeat (LRR), and pyran domains is a multi-molecular complex that can detect dangerous signals related to neurological diseases. The assembly of NLRP3 inflammasome promotes the maturation of interleukin-1beta (IL-1β) and IL-18 mediated by caspase-1 in microglia, which leads to neuroinflammation and finally contributes to the occurrence and development of AD. This review aimed to clarify the structure and activating mechanism of NLRP3 inflammasome and its key role in the pathogenesis of AD, summarize the latest findings on the suppression of NLRP3 inflammasome activation for the treatment of AD, as well as indicate that targeting regulation of NLRP3 inflammasome assembly may be a potential strategy for the treatment of AD, providing a theoretical basis for the research of AD.