Neoantigen-based immunotherapy has emerged as a transformative approach in cancer treatment, offering precision medicine strategies that target tumor-specific antigens derived from genetic, transcriptomic, and proteomic alterations unique to cancer cells. These neoantigens serve as highly specific targets for personalized therapies, promising more effective and tailored treatments. The aim of this article is to explore the advances in neoantigen-based therapies, highlighting successful treatments such as vaccines, tumor-infiltrating lymphocyte (TIL) therapy, T-cell receptor-engineered T cells therapy (TCR-T), and chimeric antigen receptor T cells therapy (CAR-T), particularly in cancer types like glioblastoma (GBM). Advances in technologies such as next-generation sequencing, RNA-based platforms, and CRISPR gene editing have accelerated the identification and validation of neoantigens, moving them closer to clinical application. Despite promising results, challenges such as tumor heterogeneity, immune evasion, and resistance mechanisms persist. The integration of AI-driven tools and multi-omic data has refined neoantigen discovery, while combination therapies are being developed to address issues like immune suppression and scalability. Additionally, the article discusses the ongoing development of personalized immunotherapies targeting tumor mutations, emphasizing the need for continued collaboration between computational and experimental approaches. Ultimately, the integration of cutting-edge technologies in neoantigen research holds the potential to revolutionize cancer care, offering hope for more effective and targeted treatments.

Emerging cancer immunotherapy methods, notably cytokine-based ones that modify immune systems’ inflammatory reactions to tumor cells, may help slow gastric cancer progression. Cytokines, tiny signaling proteins that communicate between immune cells, may help or hinder cancer growth. Pro-inflammatory cytokines encourage tumor development, whereas antitumor ones help the host reject cancer cells. This study considers cytokine-targeted methods for gastric cancer pro-inflammatory and antitumor immune responses. Researchers want to renew immune cells like cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) and natural killer (NK) cells by delivering cytokines like interleukin-2 (IL-2), interferons (IFNs), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) to activate inflammatory pathways and combat tumors. Since cytokines have significant pleiotropic effects, their therapeutic use is difficult and may cause excessive systemic inflammation or immunological suppression. This review covers current advancements in synthetic cytokines, cytokine-conjugates, and local administration of these aimed to enhance the therapeutic index: increase the potential to kill cancer cells while minimizing off-target damage. The study examines the relationship between cytokines and tumor microenvironment (TME), revealing the role of immunosuppressive cytokines like IL-10 and transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) in promoting an immune-evasive phenotype. These results suggest that inhibitory pathway targeting, and cytokine-based therapy may overcome resistance mechanisms. Cytokine-based immunotherapies combined with immune checkpoint inhibitors are predicted to change gastric cancer therapy and rebuild tumor-immune microenvironment dynamics, restoring antitumor immunity. Comprehensive data from current clinical studies will assist in establishing the position of these treatments in gastric cancer.

This review explores the intricate relationship between viral infections and Bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG) efficacy, emphasizing immune modulation mechanisms that may influence treatment outcomes. Since its introduction in 1976, intravesical BCG has been a cornerstone in managing non-muscle invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC) after transurethral resection of bladder tumors (TURBT). Despite its success, variability in response rates suggests that host immune status, influenced by persistent infections, immunosenescence, and antigenic overload, may play a crucial role in therapeutic effectiveness. Chronic viral infections can modulate T cell responses, leading to immune exhaustion and impaired antitumor immunity. This review discusses the interplay between viral antigenic load, immune dysfunction, and tumor microenvironment remodeling, highlighting their potential impact on immunotherapies. By integrating insights from virome analysis, immune profiling, and tumor characterization, this review proposes personalized strategies to enhance immunotherapy efficacy. A deeper understanding of viral-induced immune dysregulation may improve prognostic assessment, optimize treatment protocols, and reduce healthcare costs associated with bladder cancer. Future research should focus on targeted interventions to mitigate the immunosuppressive effects of chronic infections, ultimately improving patient outcomes in NMIBC management.

Exportin-1 (XPO1) is a nuclear export protein that, when overexpressed, can facilitate cancer cell proliferation and survival and is frequently overexpressed or mutated in cancer patients. As such, selective inhibitors of XPO1 (XPO1i) function have been developed to inhibit cancer cell proliferation and induce apoptosis. This review outlines the evidence for the immunomodulatory properties of XPO1 inhibition and discusses the potential for combining and sequencing XPO1i with immunotherapy to improve the treatment of patients with cancer. Selinexor is a first-in-class XPO1i that is FDA-approved for the treatment of patients with relapsed and refractory (RR) multiple myeloma and RR diffuse large B cell lymphoma. In addition to the cancer cell intrinsic pro-apoptotic activity, increasing evidence suggests that XPO1 inhibition has immunomodulatory properties. In this review, we describe how XPO1i can lead to a skewing of macrophage polarisation, inhibition of neutrophil extracellular traps, modulation of immune checkpoint expression, blockade of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) and sensitisation of cancer cells to T cell and NK (natural killer) cell immunosurveillance. As such, there is an opportunity for selinexor to enhance immunotherapy efficacy and thus a need for clinical trials assessing selinexor in combination with immunotherapies such as immune checkpoint inhibitors, direct targeting monoclonal antibodies, chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cells and cereblon E3 ligase modulators (CELMoDs).

The ultrastructural morphology of eosinophil cytolysis and extracellular trap cell death (ETosis) has predominantly been examined in non-neoplastic eosinophil-associated diseases, with a limited investigation in neoplasms. This current electron microscopy study examined the ultrastructural characteristics of eosinophil cytolysis and ETosis across four distinct gastric cancer cases: three cases (cases 1–3) exhibited non-ETotic cytolysis, while one case (case 4) presented eosinophils at various stages of ETosis. In cases 1–3, eosinophil non-ETotic cytolysis was characterized by localized plasma membrane disruption, the presence of free extracellular granules (FEGs), and the maintenance of a round or oval nuclear lobe profile. In case 4, eosinophils were observed in progressive stages of ETosis, arbitrarily subdivided into early, intermediate, and advanced. Although early ETosis and non-ETotic cytolysis exhibited overlapping ultrastructural features, chromatin decondensation and nuclear envelope enlargement were more pronounced in early ETosis. Nuclear envelope disruption, loss of the round or oval nuclear lobe profile (intermediate stage), extracellular DNA trap deposition, and the appearance of Charcot-Leyden crystals (advanced stage) were all distinctive features of ETosis. The findings of this case report confirm previous observations of eosinophil cytolysis with or without ETosis in non-neoplastic diseases and extend them to advanced gastric carcinoma. Since Charcot-Leyden crystals were only seen in case 4, their correlation with ETosis was further supported. In gastric cancer, the release of FEGs during non-ETotic cytolysis and the release of both FEGs and DNA traps during ETotic cytolysis may contribute to the formation of an antitumor microenvironment.

Immunotherapy has gathered significant attention and is now a widely used cancer treatment that uses the body’s immune system to fight cancer. Despite initial successes, its broader clinical application is hindered by limitations such as heterogeneity in patient response and challenges associated with the tumor immune microenvironment. Recent advancements in nanotechnology have offered innovative solutions to these barriers, providing significant enhancements to cancer immunotherapy. Nanotechnology-based approaches exhibit multifaceted mechanisms, including effective anti-tumor immune responses during tumorigenesis and overcoming immune suppression mechanisms to improve immune defense capacity. Nanomedicines, including nanoparticle-based vaccines, liposomes, immune modulators, and gene delivery systems, have demonstrated the ability to activate immune responses, modulate tumor microenvironments, and target specific immune cells. Success metrics in preclinical and early clinical studies, such as improved survival rates, enhanced tumor regression, and elevated immune activation indices, highlight the promise of these technologies. Despite these achievements, several challenges remain, including scaling up manufacturing, addressing off-target effects, and navigating regulatory complexities. The review emphasizes the need for interdisciplinary approaches to address these barriers, ensuring broader clinical adoption. It also provides insights into interdisciplinary approaches, advancements, and the transformative potential of nano-immunotherapy and promising results in checkpoint inhibitor delivery, nanoparticle-mediated photothermal therapy, immunomodulation as well as inhibition by nanoparticles and cancer vaccines.

The combination of enfortumab vedotin and pembrolizumab (EVP) has been recently approved for patients with locally advanced and metastatic urothelial carcinoma. This combination showed a higher objective response rate and superior progression-free survival and overall survival over traditional platinum-based chemotherapy in the frontline setting in the pivotal EV-302 trial. Despite the success, a subset of patients has primary refractory disease, and another subset will develop secondary resistance over time. Resistance to enfortumab vedotin may include the downregulation of nectin-4 expression to minimize antibody binding, upregulation of efflux pumps against the toxin, or direct resistance by the tubulin against the toxin. Resistance to pembrolizumab includes several methods to downregulate the immune system. Additionally, the type of histology of the urothelial carcinoma likely plays an important role in resisting EVP. This review summarizes these possible mechanisms of primary and secondary resistance, potential biomarkers predictive of response and resistance, and methods to overcome the resistance to EVP.

The purpose of this review was to provide a comprehensive review of the latest insights on the pathogenesis of uveal melanoma (UM) and its intracellular pathways. This article covers the epidemiology of UM, racial predispositions, cytogenetic and chromosomal alterations, gene mutations, key defective pathways, and their underlying mechanisms, as well as the application of hallmarks of cancer to UM. A key knowledge gap remains in identifying the most effective targeted therapy and determining the central pathway linking multiple signaling networks. UM is a malignant tumor arising from uveal melanocytes, predominantly affecting the choroid, with both genetic and epigenetic contributors. Key cytogenetic alterations include monosomy 3, chromosome 6p gain, chromosome 1p loss, and chromosome 8q gain. The most important UM-related signaling pathways are RAS/MAPK, PI3K/Akt/mTOR, Hippo-YAP, retinoblastoma (Rb), and p53 pathways. In the RAS/MAPK pathway, GNAQ/GNA11 mutations occur which account for more than 80% of UM cases. The PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway promotes cyclin D1 overexpression and MDM2 upregulation, leading to p53 pathway inhibition. GNAQ/GNA11 mutations activate YAP via the Trio-RhoGTPase/RhoA/Rac1 signaling circuit in the Hippo-YAP pathway. Rb pathway dysregulation results from cyclin D1 overexpression or cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor (CDKI) inactivation. In the p53 pathway, UM is characterized by p53 mutations, MDM2 overexpression, and Bcl-2 deregulation. Eventually, the ARF-MDM2 axis serves as a critical link between the RAS and p53 pathways. Hallmarks of cancer, such as evasion of growth suppression and self-sufficiency in growth signals, are also evident in UM. Genetic and epigenetic alterations, including NSB1, MDM2 and CCND1 amplification, and BAP1 mutations, play pivotal roles in UM pathobiology. Thus, UM exhibits a multifactorial pathology. By consolidating key mechanisms underlying UM pathogenesis, this review provides a comprehensive perspective on the involved pathways, offering insights that may facilitate the development of effective therapeutic strategies.

The combination of lenvatinib and pembrolizumab (Len + Pembro) demonstrated significant efficacy in the phase 3 CLEAR study for metastatic renal cell carcinoma (RCC). However, poor-risk patients represented only a small proportion of the trial population. This multicenter retrospective cohort study assessed the real-world efficacy and safety of Len + Pembro in patients with clear-cell metastatic RCC and intermediate or poor International Metastatic RCC Database Consortium risk. Outcomes included objective response rate (ORR), progression-free survival (PFS), overall survival (OS), and safety. Sixty patients were analyzed, with a median age of 56 years. Poor risk was identified in 53% of patients, and 90% had metastases to ≥ 2 organs. ORR was 48.33%, disease control rate was 86.7%, and median PFS was 19.0 months. Grade ≥ 3 adverse events occurred in 25% of patients, with 33.3% requiring lenvatinib dose reductions. Lenvatinib plus pembrolizumab demonstrated robust efficacy and a manageable safety profile in a real-world population with advanced disease and poor-risk features, consistent with outcomes reported in clinical trials.

Bladder cancer (BC) is a heterogeneous disease associated with high mortality if not diagnosed early. BC is classified into non-muscle-invasive BC (NMIBC) and muscle-invasive BC (MIBC), with MIBC linked to poor systemic therapy response and high recurrence rates. Current treatments include transurethral resection with Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) therapy for NMIBC and radical cystectomy with chemotherapy and/or immunotherapy for MIBC. The tumor microenvironment (TME) plays a critical role in cancer progression, metastasis, and therapeutic efficacy. A comprehensive understanding of the TME’s complex interactions holds substantial translational significance for developing innovative treatments. The TME can contribute to therapeutic resistance, particularly in immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) therapies, where resistance arises from tumor-intrinsic changes or extrinsic TME factors. Recent advancements in immunotherapy highlight the importance of translational research to address these challenges. Strategies to overcome resistance focus on remodeling the TME to transform immunologically “cold” tumors, which lack immune cell infiltration, into “hot” tumors that respond better to immunotherapy. These strategies involve disrupting cancer-microenvironment interactions, inhibiting angiogenesis, and modulating immune components to enhance anti-tumor responses. Key mechanisms include cytokine involvement [e.g., interleukin-6 (IL-6)], phenotypic alterations in macrophages and natural killer (NK) cells, and the plasticity of cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs). Identifying potential therapeutic targets within the TME can improve outcomes for MIBC patients. This review emphasizes the TME’s complexity and its impact on guiding novel therapeutic approaches, offering hope for better survival in MIBC.

Glioblastoma (GBM), the most aggressive and lethal primary brain tumor, poses a significant therapeutic challenge due to its highly invasive nature and resistance to conventional therapies, including surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy. Despite advances in standard treatments, patient survival remains limited, requiring the exploration of innovative strategies. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) has emerged as a promising approach, leveraging light-sensitive photosensitizers (PSs), molecular oxygen, and specific light wavelengths to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) that selectively induce tumor cell death. Originally developed for skin cancer, PDT has evolved to target more complex malignancies, including GBM. The refinement of second- and third-generation PS, coupled with advancements in nanotechnology, has significantly improved PDT’s selectivity, bioavailability, and therapeutic efficacy. Moreover, the combination of PDT with chemotherapy, targeted therapy, and immunotherapy, among other therapeutic modalities, has shown potential in enhancing therapeutic outcomes. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the preclinical and clinical applications of PDT in GBM, detailing its mechanisms of action, the evolution of PS, and novel combinatory strategies that optimize treatment efficacy. However, several challenges remain, including overcoming GBM-associated hypoxia, enhancing PS delivery across the blood-brain barrier, and mitigating tumor resistance mechanisms. The integration of PDT with molecular and genetic insight, alongside cutting-edge nanotechnology-based delivery systems, may revolutionize GBM treatment, offering new prospects for improved patient survival and quality of life.

Small cell lung cancer (SCLC) is an aggressive tumor characterized by early metastasis and resistance to treatment, making it a prime target for therapeutic investigation. The current standard of care for frontline treatment involves a combination of chemotherapeutic agents and immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), though durability of response remains limited. The genetic heterogeneity of SCLC also complicates the development of new therapeutic options. Adoptive cell therapies show promise by targeting specific mutations in order to increase efficacy and minimize toxicity. There has been significant investigation in three therapeutic classes for application towards SCLC: antibody drug conjugates (ADCs), bispecific T-cell engagers (BiTEs), and chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cell therapies. This review summarizes the recent advances and challenges in the development of adoptive cell therapies. Genetic targets such as delta-like ligand 3 (DLL3), trophoblast cell surface antigen 2 (Trop2), B7-H3 (CD276), gangliosides disialoganglioside GD2 (GD2) and ganglioside GM2 (GM2) have been found to be expressed in SCLC, which makes them prime targets for therapy development. While investigated therapies such as rovalpituzumab tesirine (Rova-T) have failed, several insights from these trials have led to the development of compelling new agents such as sacituzumab govitecan (SG), ifinatamab deruxtecan (I-DXd), tarlatamab, and DLL3-targeted CAR-T cells. Advancing development of molecular testing and improving targeted approaches remain integral to pushing forward the progress of adoptive cell therapies in SCLC.

Bladder cancer (BCa) is among the most frequently diagnosed urinary tract cancers, characterized by a high recurrence rate and significant clinical heterogeneity. Effective diagnosis and treatment of BCa demand continuous advancements in medical technologies, particularly given the limitations of classical methods such as cystoscopy and urine cytology. A comprehensive search of PubMed and Web of Science was conducted using relevant keywords to structure this narrative review. Additionally, specialist journals were reviewed. Only articles in English were included, with selection based on titles, abstracts, and availability of full texts. In recent years, biomarkers have emerged as crucial tools complementing traditional techniques, providing more precise, sensitive, and non-invasive methods for early detection, prognosis, and monitoring treatment response in BCa. Molecular, genetic, and protein biomarkers enable a deeper understanding of BCa biology, creating opportunities for personalized therapy tailored to individual patient needs. However, despite their potential, certain challenges remain, including standardization, validation, and integration into routine clinical practice. This review highlights recent advancements in BCa biomarkers and their transformative potential in oncological care. It underscores the importance of incorporating these innovations to refine diagnostic and therapeutic approaches, ultimately improving patient outcomes. Modern diagnostic and prognostic tools for BCa can enhance treatment outcomes by enabling early disease detection and reducing recurrence risks. This progress promises to improve patients’ quality of life by minimizing disease burden and fostering effective, tailored care strategies.

Pancreatic cancer is a challenging disease with limited treatment options and a high mortality rate. Just few therapy advances have been made in recent years. Tumor microenvironment, immunosuppressive features and mutational status represent important obstacles in the improvement of survival outcomes. Up to now, first-line therapy did achieve a median overall survival of less than 12 months and this discouraging data lead clinicians all over the world to focus their efforts on various fields of investigation: 1) sequential cycling of different systemic therapy in order to overcome mechanisms of resistance; 2) discovery of new predictive bio-markers, in order to target specific patient population; 3) combination treatment, in order to modulate the tumor microenvironment of pancreatic cancer; 4) new modalities of the delivery of drugs in order to pass the physical barrier of desmoplasia and tumor stroma. This review shows future directions of treatment strategies in advanced pancreatic cancer through a deep analysis of these recent macro areas of research.

Although immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) are widely used in clinical oncology, less than half of treated cancer patients derive benefit from this therapy. Both tumor- and host-related variables are implicated in response to ICIs. The predictive value of PD-L1 expression is confined only to several cancer types, so this molecule is not an agnostic biomarker. Highly elevated tumor mutation burden (TMB) caused either by excessive carcinogenic exposure or by a deficiency in DNA repair is a reliable indicator for ICI efficacy, as exemplified by tumors with high-level microsatellite instability (MSI-H). Other potentially relevant tumor-related characteristics include gene expression signatures, pattern of tumor infiltration by immune cells, and, perhaps, some immune-response modifying somatic mutations. Host-related factors have not yet been comprehensively considered in relevant clinical trials. Microbiome composition, markers of systemic inflammation [e.g., neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR)], and human leucocyte antigen (HLA) diversity may influence the efficacy of ICIs. Studies on ICI biomarkers are likely to reveal modifiable tumor or host characteristics, which can be utilized to direct the antitumor immune defense. Examples of the latter approach include tumor priming to immune therapy by cytotoxic drugs and elevation of ICI efficacy by microbiome modification.

Immunotherapy has revolutionized cancer treatment, yet its efficacy is frequently compromised by metabolic mechanisms that drive resistance. Understanding how tumor metabolism shapes the immune microenvironment is essential for developing effective therapeutic strategies. This review examines key metabolic pathways influencing immunotherapy resistance, including glucose, lipid, and amino acid metabolism. We discuss their impact on immune cell function and tumor progression, highlighting emerging therapeutic strategies to counteract these effects. Tumor cells undergo metabolic reprogramming to sustain proliferation, altering the availability of essential nutrients and generating toxic byproducts that impair cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) and natural killer (NK) cell activity. The accumulation of lactate, deregulated lipid metabolism, and amino acid depletion contribute to an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). Targeting metabolic pathways, such as inhibiting glycolysis, modulating lipid metabolism, and restoring amino acid balance, has shown promise in enhancing immunotherapy response. Addressing metabolic barriers is crucial to overcoming immunotherapy resistance. Integrating metabolic-targeted therapies with immune checkpoint inhibitors may improve clinical outcomes. Future research should focus on personalized strategies to optimize metabolic interventions and enhance antitumor immunity.

Cervical cancer remains a significant global health challenge, ranking as the fourth most common cancer among women. Persistent infection with high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) is the primary etiological factor, leading to immune evasion mechanisms that promote tumor development and progression. Immunotherapy has emerged as a transformative approach in the management of cervical cancer, aiming to restore and enhance the body’s immune response against tumor cells. Checkpoint inhibitors targeting programmed death-1 (PD-1) and its ligand (PD-L1) have shown promising results in patients with advanced or recurrent cervical cancer. Pembrolizumab, a PD-1 inhibitor, has been approved for PD-L1-positive cervical cancer, demonstrating durable responses. However, low response rates necessitate exploration of combination strategies. Trials are underway combining checkpoint inhibitors with chemotherapy, radiation, or other immunotherapeutic agents to enhance efficacy. Therapeutic vaccines targeting HPV antigens, such as E6 and E7 oncoproteins, are also a focus of active research. These vaccines aim to elicit robust cytotoxic T-cell responses, offering a potential strategy for early intervention and disease control. Adoptive T-cell therapies, including engineered T-cell receptor (TCR) and chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cells, represent cutting-edge advancements, though challenges with tumor heterogeneity and off-target effects persist. However, challenges such as limited response rates and immune evasion mechanisms remain. The tumor microenvironment (TME) in cervical cancer, characterized by immunosuppressive cells and cytokines, poses a significant barrier to effective immunotherapy. Emerging approaches targeting the TME, such as cytokine modulation, hold promise in overcoming resistance mechanisms. Key gaps include a lack of biomarkers for patient selection, insufficient understanding of TME dynamics, and suboptimal strategies for overcoming antigen heterogeneity and immune resistance. This review addresses these issues by providing a comprehensive analysis of the current landscape of cervical cancer immunotherapy, identifying critical barriers, and highlighting emerging approaches, such as combination therapies, novel immune targets, and strategies to modulate the TME, to guide future research and clinical practice.

Glioblastoma, an aggressive and lethal brain tumor, presents enormous clinical challenges, including molecular heterogeneity, high recurrence rates, resistance to conventional therapies, and limited therapeutic penetration across the blood-brain barrier. The glioblastoma microenvironment, characterized by a dynamic interplay of cellular and non-cellular components, is a key driver of tumor growth and therapeutic resistance. Neuroinflammatory cytokines, particularly interleukins and tumor necrosis factor-alpha, play pivotal roles in this microenvironment, contributing to tumor progression and immune evasion. This review highlights oncolytic virotherapy as a promising therapeutic avenue, focusing on its potential to modulate neuroinflammatory responses, induce localized immune reactions, and deliver immunomodulatory factors directly to the tumor site. While encouraging outcomes have been observed, challenges such as overcoming the blood-brain barrier, managing host antiviral immunity, and mitigating potential risks to normal neuronal cells remain critical barriers to clinical translation. By analyzing the intricate interactions of oncolytic viruses with the glioblastoma microenvironment and synthesizing findings from preclinical and clinical trials, this review provides actionable insights into developing personalized and effective therapeutic strategies for this aggressive tumor based on oncolytic virotherapy alone or when using it combined with conventional therapies, immunotherapy, natural killer-cell therapy, chimeric antigen receptor-T cell therapy, and dendritic cell therapy.