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Electrochemical sensors have emerged as powerful tools for the detection and monitoring of neurotransmitters, offering high sensitivity, selectivity, and potential for real-time analysis. Neurotransmitters play a crucial role in regulating various physiological and neurological processes, and imbalances in their levels are linked to a wide range of neurological disorders, including Parkinson’s disease, depression, Alzheimer’s disease, and epilepsy. This review highlights recent advancements in electrochemical sensor technologies for neurotransmitter detection, focusing on innovations that enhance performance through the use of nanomaterials, wearable devices, and multiplexed sensing techniques. The integration of nanomaterials such as graphene, carbon nanotubes, and metal nanoparticles has significantly improved sensor sensitivity and selectivity, enabling more accurate detection even at low concentrations. Furthermore, the development of flexible, wearable, and implantable sensors is facilitating continuous, non-invasive monitoring of neurotransmitter levels in real time. Advances in multiplexed sensors are enabling the simultaneous detection of multiple neurotransmitters, providing a more comprehensive approach to disease diagnosis and management. Despite these promising developments, challenges remain, including issues of selectivity, stability, and long-term monitoring. Nevertheless, electrochemical sensors hold great potential for transforming the way neurological disorders are diagnosed and managed, offering opportunities for personalized, real-time monitoring and more effective treatment strategies.
Electrochemical sensors have emerged as powerful tools for the detection and monitoring of neurotransmitters, offering high sensitivity, selectivity, and potential for real-time analysis. Neurotransmitters play a crucial role in regulating various physiological and neurological processes, and imbalances in their levels are linked to a wide range of neurological disorders, including Parkinson’s disease, depression, Alzheimer’s disease, and epilepsy. This review highlights recent advancements in electrochemical sensor technologies for neurotransmitter detection, focusing on innovations that enhance performance through the use of nanomaterials, wearable devices, and multiplexed sensing techniques. The integration of nanomaterials such as graphene, carbon nanotubes, and metal nanoparticles has significantly improved sensor sensitivity and selectivity, enabling more accurate detection even at low concentrations. Furthermore, the development of flexible, wearable, and implantable sensors is facilitating continuous, non-invasive monitoring of neurotransmitter levels in real time. Advances in multiplexed sensors are enabling the simultaneous detection of multiple neurotransmitters, providing a more comprehensive approach to disease diagnosis and management. Despite these promising developments, challenges remain, including issues of selectivity, stability, and long-term monitoring. Nevertheless, electrochemical sensors hold great potential for transforming the way neurological disorders are diagnosed and managed, offering opportunities for personalized, real-time monitoring and more effective treatment strategies.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.37349/ebmx.2026.101363
Antibiotic resistance is a global threat, driven by limited new antimicrobials and rising multidrug-resistant infections. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) combine tunable material properties with antimicrobial functionality, providing biocompatibility, controlled release, and biofilm penetration. LNPs provide key advantages over metallic and polymeric nanocarriers, including high biocompatibility, the ability to encapsulate both hydrophilic and hydrophobic agents, controlled release profiles, and reduced cytotoxicity and immune activation. These features enhance drug stability and bioavailability and may help circumvent bacterial defences such as biofilms and efflux pumps. Robust preclinical evaluation platform of antimicrobial biomaterials requires platforms that capture biologically relevant interactions while remaining ethically and economically feasible. The chick embryo model (CEM) has emerged as a versatile platform for infection studies, bridging conventional in vitro assays and mammalian in vivo models. Its vascularized and developing tissue environment enables assessment of nanoparticle biodistribution, local toxicity, and antimicrobial efficacy within a dynamic biological context. This review critically examines the application of the CEM for evaluating LNP-based antimicrobial systems, highlighting current methodological variability and limitations in experimental standardization. By identifying gaps in protocol harmonisation and comparative assessment, this work outlines opportunities to improve reproducibility and translational relevance. Overall, integrating rationally designed LNP systems with optimised CEMs may accelerate the development of next-generation antimicrobial biomaterials to combat antibiotic-resistant infections.
Antibiotic resistance is a global threat, driven by limited new antimicrobials and rising multidrug-resistant infections. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) combine tunable material properties with antimicrobial functionality, providing biocompatibility, controlled release, and biofilm penetration. LNPs provide key advantages over metallic and polymeric nanocarriers, including high biocompatibility, the ability to encapsulate both hydrophilic and hydrophobic agents, controlled release profiles, and reduced cytotoxicity and immune activation. These features enhance drug stability and bioavailability and may help circumvent bacterial defences such as biofilms and efflux pumps. Robust preclinical evaluation platform of antimicrobial biomaterials requires platforms that capture biologically relevant interactions while remaining ethically and economically feasible. The chick embryo model (CEM) has emerged as a versatile platform for infection studies, bridging conventional in vitro assays and mammalian in vivo models. Its vascularized and developing tissue environment enables assessment of nanoparticle biodistribution, local toxicity, and antimicrobial efficacy within a dynamic biological context. This review critically examines the application of the CEM for evaluating LNP-based antimicrobial systems, highlighting current methodological variability and limitations in experimental standardization. By identifying gaps in protocol harmonisation and comparative assessment, this work outlines opportunities to improve reproducibility and translational relevance. Overall, integrating rationally designed LNP systems with optimised CEMs may accelerate the development of next-generation antimicrobial biomaterials to combat antibiotic-resistant infections.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.37349/ebmx.2026.101362
Aim:
This study aims to develop and validate a transmission electron microscopy (TEM)–based approach for probing nanoscale lipid membrane dynamics by tracking the motion of gold nanoparticles dispersed on membrane surfaces.
Methods:
Lipid thin films composed of dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) or dioleoylphosphatidylcholine (DOPC) were prepared over 2 μm holes in Quantifoil grids, and 5 nm gold nanocolloids were introduced as tracer particles. Sequential TEM imaging was performed during controlled heating and cooling cycles, and nanoparticle trajectories were analyzed to obtain mean squared displacement (MSD) curves. These measurements enabled quantification of thermally driven membrane dynamics. The temperature dependent behavior was further compared with differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) of dehydrated lipid samples.
Results:
DPPC exhibited a pronounced MSD peak near 52.5 °C during the first heating cycle, corresponding to its main phase transition, whereas DOPC showed gradual and continuous mobility changes consistent with its intrinsically disordered acyl chains. Differences between electron beam molecular dynamics (EBMD) and DSC transition temperatures likely arose from dehydration and thin film geometry. Across repeated thermal cycles, DPPC membranes displayed cycle dependent changes in MSD profiles, suggesting annealing induced homogenization and potential beam induced structural alterations.
Conclusions:
EBMD provides real space, time resolved visualization of nanoscale membrane fluctuations and complements ensemble techniques such as DSC, fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). The TEM based particle tracking approach reliably distinguishes ordered versus disordered lipid systems and offers a versatile platform for investigating soft biological membranes, including systems containing proteins or heterogeneous lipid compositions.
Aim:
This study aims to develop and validate a transmission electron microscopy (TEM)–based approach for probing nanoscale lipid membrane dynamics by tracking the motion of gold nanoparticles dispersed on membrane surfaces.
Methods:
Lipid thin films composed of dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) or dioleoylphosphatidylcholine (DOPC) were prepared over 2 μm holes in Quantifoil grids, and 5 nm gold nanocolloids were introduced as tracer particles. Sequential TEM imaging was performed during controlled heating and cooling cycles, and nanoparticle trajectories were analyzed to obtain mean squared displacement (MSD) curves. These measurements enabled quantification of thermally driven membrane dynamics. The temperature dependent behavior was further compared with differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) of dehydrated lipid samples.
Results:
DPPC exhibited a pronounced MSD peak near 52.5 °C during the first heating cycle, corresponding to its main phase transition, whereas DOPC showed gradual and continuous mobility changes consistent with its intrinsically disordered acyl chains. Differences between electron beam molecular dynamics (EBMD) and DSC transition temperatures likely arose from dehydration and thin film geometry. Across repeated thermal cycles, DPPC membranes displayed cycle dependent changes in MSD profiles, suggesting annealing induced homogenization and potential beam induced structural alterations.
Conclusions:
EBMD provides real space, time resolved visualization of nanoscale membrane fluctuations and complements ensemble techniques such as DSC, fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). The TEM based particle tracking approach reliably distinguishes ordered versus disordered lipid systems and offers a versatile platform for investigating soft biological membranes, including systems containing proteins or heterogeneous lipid compositions.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.37349/ebmx.2026.101361
Three-dimensional metal printing has made anatomical perfection readily achievable in orthopaedic reconstruction. Yet, as patient-specific implants transition from salvage solutions to routine applications, a critical question emerges: Does geometric precision improve long-term outcomes, or merely perfect existing problems? The article argues that customization defined by shape alone fails to address fundamental biological constraints, including stiffness mismatch, stress shielding, vascular compromise, and the inevitability of revision surgery. While additive manufacturing enables porous architectures and tailored mechanics, unchecked integration and over-conformity may jeopardize bone preservation and future surgical options. The article further highlights the professional and economic costs of patient-specific workflows and the limitations of static digital planning. True innovation, it is argued, lies not in achieving the “perfect fit,” but in designing implants that participate in bone biology and remain surgically defensible decades after implantation.
Three-dimensional metal printing has made anatomical perfection readily achievable in orthopaedic reconstruction. Yet, as patient-specific implants transition from salvage solutions to routine applications, a critical question emerges: Does geometric precision improve long-term outcomes, or merely perfect existing problems? The article argues that customization defined by shape alone fails to address fundamental biological constraints, including stiffness mismatch, stress shielding, vascular compromise, and the inevitability of revision surgery. While additive manufacturing enables porous architectures and tailored mechanics, unchecked integration and over-conformity may jeopardize bone preservation and future surgical options. The article further highlights the professional and economic costs of patient-specific workflows and the limitations of static digital planning. True innovation, it is argued, lies not in achieving the “perfect fit,” but in designing implants that participate in bone biology and remain surgically defensible decades after implantation.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.37349/ebmx.2026.101360
This article belongs to the special issue Metal 3D Printing of Biometals for Prostheses and Implants
The emergence of stem-cell-derived enamel organoids and dentin-producing dental pulp stem cell constructs presents new possibilities for restoring carious lesions using autologous enamel–dentin inlays. This overview outlines the biological and technological advances supporting this approach and proposes a workflow oriented toward clinical application. The benefits of tissue-based inlays, including inherent biomechanical compatibility, aesthetic accuracy, and potential for biological integration, are contrasted with those of purely artificial materials. Significant regenerative developments include the formation of human enamel organoids and odontoblast-lineage cells in vitro, 3D bioprinting of tooth-shaped constructs with demineralised dentin matrix and poly(ε‑caprolactone) scaffolds, and fibre-guiding periodontal ligament scaffolds that restore Sharpey’s fibres in vivo. The mechanical performance of adhesive resin cements, with bond strengths of approximately 4–7 MPa to enamel and dentin, and their durability in reattaching natural tooth fragments, supports the feasibility of bonding biological inlays. Practical considerations include controlling the slow degradation and hydrophobicity of poly(ε-caprolactone) through the use of ceramic or natural polymer additives, employing multi-material 3D printing to co-print mineralized enamel and cell-laden dentin layers, and achieving the desired shade, microstructure, and mechanical properties, exemplified by a compressive strength of approximately 677 MPa for 3D-printed zirconia crowns. Despite regulatory and translational challenges, the integration of digital dentistry, bioprinting, and stem cell science points toward future “grow and glue” restorations that may replace traditional drill-and-fill methods.
The emergence of stem-cell-derived enamel organoids and dentin-producing dental pulp stem cell constructs presents new possibilities for restoring carious lesions using autologous enamel–dentin inlays. This overview outlines the biological and technological advances supporting this approach and proposes a workflow oriented toward clinical application. The benefits of tissue-based inlays, including inherent biomechanical compatibility, aesthetic accuracy, and potential for biological integration, are contrasted with those of purely artificial materials. Significant regenerative developments include the formation of human enamel organoids and odontoblast-lineage cells in vitro, 3D bioprinting of tooth-shaped constructs with demineralised dentin matrix and poly(ε‑caprolactone) scaffolds, and fibre-guiding periodontal ligament scaffolds that restore Sharpey’s fibres in vivo. The mechanical performance of adhesive resin cements, with bond strengths of approximately 4–7 MPa to enamel and dentin, and their durability in reattaching natural tooth fragments, supports the feasibility of bonding biological inlays. Practical considerations include controlling the slow degradation and hydrophobicity of poly(ε-caprolactone) through the use of ceramic or natural polymer additives, employing multi-material 3D printing to co-print mineralized enamel and cell-laden dentin layers, and achieving the desired shade, microstructure, and mechanical properties, exemplified by a compressive strength of approximately 677 MPa for 3D-printed zirconia crowns. Despite regulatory and translational challenges, the integration of digital dentistry, bioprinting, and stem cell science points toward future “grow and glue” restorations that may replace traditional drill-and-fill methods.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.37349/ebmx.2026.101359
This article belongs to the special issue Innovations in Biomaterials for Dentistry and Oral Surgery
Ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) is widely used as a key material in biomedical implants such as artificial joints due to its exceptional wear resistance, high impact strength, and good biocompatibility. However, its inherent bio-inertness, hydrophobicity, risk of osteolysis induced by wear debris, and insufficient mechanical and processing properties severely limit its long-term clinical performance. This review systematically summarizes recent advances in the functional enhancement of UHMWPE via hybrid strategies, including surface modifications (e.g., coatings, chemical grafting, laser processing, plasma treatment) and bulk blending modifications (involving both organic and inorganic composites). These approaches have been shown to significantly improve wear resistance, bioactivity, hydrophilicity, and mechanical properties, while effectively suppressing oxidative degradation and inflammatory responses. The current challenges in modification technologies, such as balancing multiple properties, ensuring long-term biosafety, and achieving clinical translation, are also discussed. Finally, future directions toward multifunctional integration, intelligent responsiveness, and personalized customization of implants are outlined, providing critical insights for the development of next-generation high-performance and long-lasting biomedical materials.
Ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) is widely used as a key material in biomedical implants such as artificial joints due to its exceptional wear resistance, high impact strength, and good biocompatibility. However, its inherent bio-inertness, hydrophobicity, risk of osteolysis induced by wear debris, and insufficient mechanical and processing properties severely limit its long-term clinical performance. This review systematically summarizes recent advances in the functional enhancement of UHMWPE via hybrid strategies, including surface modifications (e.g., coatings, chemical grafting, laser processing, plasma treatment) and bulk blending modifications (involving both organic and inorganic composites). These approaches have been shown to significantly improve wear resistance, bioactivity, hydrophilicity, and mechanical properties, while effectively suppressing oxidative degradation and inflammatory responses. The current challenges in modification technologies, such as balancing multiple properties, ensuring long-term biosafety, and achieving clinical translation, are also discussed. Finally, future directions toward multifunctional integration, intelligent responsiveness, and personalized customization of implants are outlined, providing critical insights for the development of next-generation high-performance and long-lasting biomedical materials.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.37349/ebmx.2026.101358
Aim:
Although polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is more hydrophobic than polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) in fluorocarbon polymer (FCP) membrane filters, it has been reported that the rate of amyloid fibril formation is faster on PVDF than on PTFE. To clarify whether the effect is due to the membrane’s chemical structure or its hydrophobicity at the membrane interface, studies on amyloid fibril formation were conducted using both hydrophobic and hydrophilic PVDF and PTFE membranes.
Methods:
Heat-treated insulin (INS) was adsorbed onto the FCP membrane filters. Gaussian integrals were employed to determine the amounts of β-sheet and their abundance ratios by curve fitting of attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared spectra.
Results:
Adsorbed heat-treated INS onto the FCP membrane filters showed a β-sheet form, with a similar or higher affinity in comparison with that of the β-rich concanavalin A. The adsorption followed a sigmoidal curve with a 2-hour lag time, reaching a plateau after 4–5 hours. The spectral patterns of the adsorbed INS indicated the β-sheet form, demonstrating that INS transformed into β-sheet and then, or simultaneously, adsorbed onto the FCP membrane filters.
Conclusions:
The results regarding the rate and strength of amyloid fibril formation for each FCP membrane filter suggest that, beyond the membrane’s surface hydrophobicity or hydrophilicity, other factors, such as the electron affinity of hydrogen in the PVDF membrane, also influence nucleation. This study provides insight into the role of INS in amyloid fibril formation within FCP membrane filters.
Aim:
Although polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is more hydrophobic than polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) in fluorocarbon polymer (FCP) membrane filters, it has been reported that the rate of amyloid fibril formation is faster on PVDF than on PTFE. To clarify whether the effect is due to the membrane’s chemical structure or its hydrophobicity at the membrane interface, studies on amyloid fibril formation were conducted using both hydrophobic and hydrophilic PVDF and PTFE membranes.
Methods:
Heat-treated insulin (INS) was adsorbed onto the FCP membrane filters. Gaussian integrals were employed to determine the amounts of β-sheet and their abundance ratios by curve fitting of attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared spectra.
Results:
Adsorbed heat-treated INS onto the FCP membrane filters showed a β-sheet form, with a similar or higher affinity in comparison with that of the β-rich concanavalin A. The adsorption followed a sigmoidal curve with a 2-hour lag time, reaching a plateau after 4–5 hours. The spectral patterns of the adsorbed INS indicated the β-sheet form, demonstrating that INS transformed into β-sheet and then, or simultaneously, adsorbed onto the FCP membrane filters.
Conclusions:
The results regarding the rate and strength of amyloid fibril formation for each FCP membrane filter suggest that, beyond the membrane’s surface hydrophobicity or hydrophilicity, other factors, such as the electron affinity of hydrogen in the PVDF membrane, also influence nucleation. This study provides insight into the role of INS in amyloid fibril formation within FCP membrane filters.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.37349/ebmx.2026.101357
Hydrogels are among the most intensively studied biomaterials for controlled drug delivery, yet translation to routine clinical practice has been limited by rapid diffusion of small molecules and instability of biologics. In their recent report in Nature Nanotechnology (Pogostin et al., 2025, DOI: 10.1038/s41565-025-01981-6), a team from Rice University and collaborators present a nanofibrous supramolecular peptide hydrogel system that addresses these challenges through the incorporation of dynamic covalent chemistry. The SABER (Self-Assembling Boronate Ester Release) platform introduces reversible boronate ester bonds between engineered peptide fibers and boronic acid modified therapeutics, creating a tunable and long-acting drug release system. Proof-of-concept applications included tuberculosis therapy, diabetes management, and prolonged antibody delivery, demonstrating both versatility and clinical relevance. In this Commentary, I situate this advance within the broader trajectory of hydrogel research, highlight the conceptual novelty of dynamic supramolecular interactions, and discuss the opportunities and challenges for clinical translation. I argue that this platform signals a paradigm shift in drug delivery, moving hydrogels from passive depots to dynamic partners in medicine.
Hydrogels are among the most intensively studied biomaterials for controlled drug delivery, yet translation to routine clinical practice has been limited by rapid diffusion of small molecules and instability of biologics. In their recent report in Nature Nanotechnology (Pogostin et al., 2025, DOI: 10.1038/s41565-025-01981-6), a team from Rice University and collaborators present a nanofibrous supramolecular peptide hydrogel system that addresses these challenges through the incorporation of dynamic covalent chemistry. The SABER (Self-Assembling Boronate Ester Release) platform introduces reversible boronate ester bonds between engineered peptide fibers and boronic acid modified therapeutics, creating a tunable and long-acting drug release system. Proof-of-concept applications included tuberculosis therapy, diabetes management, and prolonged antibody delivery, demonstrating both versatility and clinical relevance. In this Commentary, I situate this advance within the broader trajectory of hydrogel research, highlight the conceptual novelty of dynamic supramolecular interactions, and discuss the opportunities and challenges for clinical translation. I argue that this platform signals a paradigm shift in drug delivery, moving hydrogels from passive depots to dynamic partners in medicine.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.37349/ebmx.2026.101356
Luminescent markers have been widely used in medicine, biology, agrotechnology, and for marking nuclear wastes and consumer goods. The high sensitivity and selectivity of the markers/labels allow the detection of various substances and the obtaining of valuable information about the distribution of constituents in specific media. This review describes the state of the art in luminescent marking/labeling of various cellulose forms, including nanosized ones, cellulose derivatives, and cellulose-containing materials. The importance of this consideration is explained by the role of cellulose and its derivatives in human life and their overall impact on mankind’s development. The structure and luminescence properties of cellulose and other related materials and cellulose derivatives are discussed from the viewpoint of cellulose luminescent “self-labeling”. It is shown that dyes, organic molecules, and organic-inorganic complexes, as well as inorganic dielectric and semiconductor micro/nanoparticles, can be effectively applied for the purposes of cellulose luminescent marking/labeling. This review discusses various application examples and explains the performance and mechanisms of various systems labeling (e.g., dye-cellulose, quantum dot-cellulose complex) in these applications. The review not only comprehensively summarizes existing approaches to luminescent labeling of cellulose-containing materials. It also highlights problematic issues that arise for developers of new luminescent markers (quenching of luminescence in an aqueous environment, the need to functionalize the luminescent marker material, etc.). At the same time, this work demonstrates the prospects for luminescent labeling data in modern digital technologies, particularly in the Internet of Things (IoT).
Luminescent markers have been widely used in medicine, biology, agrotechnology, and for marking nuclear wastes and consumer goods. The high sensitivity and selectivity of the markers/labels allow the detection of various substances and the obtaining of valuable information about the distribution of constituents in specific media. This review describes the state of the art in luminescent marking/labeling of various cellulose forms, including nanosized ones, cellulose derivatives, and cellulose-containing materials. The importance of this consideration is explained by the role of cellulose and its derivatives in human life and their overall impact on mankind’s development. The structure and luminescence properties of cellulose and other related materials and cellulose derivatives are discussed from the viewpoint of cellulose luminescent “self-labeling”. It is shown that dyes, organic molecules, and organic-inorganic complexes, as well as inorganic dielectric and semiconductor micro/nanoparticles, can be effectively applied for the purposes of cellulose luminescent marking/labeling. This review discusses various application examples and explains the performance and mechanisms of various systems labeling (e.g., dye-cellulose, quantum dot-cellulose complex) in these applications. The review not only comprehensively summarizes existing approaches to luminescent labeling of cellulose-containing materials. It also highlights problematic issues that arise for developers of new luminescent markers (quenching of luminescence in an aqueous environment, the need to functionalize the luminescent marker material, etc.). At the same time, this work demonstrates the prospects for luminescent labeling data in modern digital technologies, particularly in the Internet of Things (IoT).
DOI: https://doi.org/10.37349/ebmx.2025.101353
This article belongs to the special issue Nature-Based Biomaterials for Biomedical Applications
DOI: https://doi.org/10.37349/ebmx.2025.101354
This article belongs to the special issue Bioinspired Material for Regenerative Medicine
Aim:
Osimertinib’s clinical application is limited by poor aqueous solubility and systemic toxicity. Nano-niosomal formulations can address these challenges by providing controlled release and enhancing delivery. To develop and systematically evaluate nano-niosomal formulations of osimertinib using different surfactants, focusing on physicochemical characteristics, release kinetics, and cytotoxic activity.
Methods:
Four niosomal formulations were prepared using Span 60, Tween 60, Pluronic F-127, and Brij 52 (each at a 1:1 cholesterol-to-surfactant ratio). Particle size, zeta potential, and entrapment efficiency were measured. In vitro drug release was analyzed using Franz diffusion cells and fitted to standard kinetic models. Cytotoxicity was assessed by MTT assay in KAIMRC-2, MDA-MB231, and HCT-116 cell lines. Vesicle morphology was visualized by transmission electron microscopy.
Results:
All nano-niosomal formulations showed nanoscale particle sizes (47–292 nm), negative zeta potentials (−18.7 to −26.5 mV), and high entrapment efficiencies (69.8%–76.2%). Release studies indicated Span 60, Tween 60, and Pluronic F-127 followed diffusion-controlled kinetics (Higuchi/Korsmeyer–Peppas model, R2 up to 0.97), while Brij 52 provided a sustained zero-order release (R2 = 0.98). Compared to free osimertinib, all niosomal systems significantly prolonged release. Cytotoxicity studies demonstrated that all formulations enhanced anti-cancer effects, with Span 60-based niosomes exhibiting the greatest potency across cell lines.
Conclusions:
Optimized nano-niosomal encapsulation of osimertinib enables sustained and controlled drug release, improved cellular uptake, and enhanced cytotoxicity in vitro. Differences in surfactant composition critically influence formulation performance, supporting the further development of niosomal osimertinib as a promising strategy for oncological drug delivery applications.
Aim:
Osimertinib’s clinical application is limited by poor aqueous solubility and systemic toxicity. Nano-niosomal formulations can address these challenges by providing controlled release and enhancing delivery. To develop and systematically evaluate nano-niosomal formulations of osimertinib using different surfactants, focusing on physicochemical characteristics, release kinetics, and cytotoxic activity.
Methods:
Four niosomal formulations were prepared using Span 60, Tween 60, Pluronic F-127, and Brij 52 (each at a 1:1 cholesterol-to-surfactant ratio). Particle size, zeta potential, and entrapment efficiency were measured. In vitro drug release was analyzed using Franz diffusion cells and fitted to standard kinetic models. Cytotoxicity was assessed by MTT assay in KAIMRC-2, MDA-MB231, and HCT-116 cell lines. Vesicle morphology was visualized by transmission electron microscopy.
Results:
All nano-niosomal formulations showed nanoscale particle sizes (47–292 nm), negative zeta potentials (−18.7 to −26.5 mV), and high entrapment efficiencies (69.8%–76.2%). Release studies indicated Span 60, Tween 60, and Pluronic F-127 followed diffusion-controlled kinetics (Higuchi/Korsmeyer–Peppas model, R2 up to 0.97), while Brij 52 provided a sustained zero-order release (R2 = 0.98). Compared to free osimertinib, all niosomal systems significantly prolonged release. Cytotoxicity studies demonstrated that all formulations enhanced anti-cancer effects, with Span 60-based niosomes exhibiting the greatest potency across cell lines.
Conclusions:
Optimized nano-niosomal encapsulation of osimertinib enables sustained and controlled drug release, improved cellular uptake, and enhanced cytotoxicity in vitro. Differences in surfactant composition critically influence formulation performance, supporting the further development of niosomal osimertinib as a promising strategy for oncological drug delivery applications.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.37349/ebmx.2025.101355
The challenges of conventional animal models and two-dimensional (2D) in vitro cell cultures in effectively forecasting human toxicity have prompted a significant shift towards New Approach Methodologies (NAMs). This development centers on advanced humanized in vitro co-culture models that offer improved physiological relevance for toxicological assessment. This perspective highlights the critical role of biomaterials in the creation of complex microenvironments. This study demonstrates how biomaterials effectively mimic the original extracellular matrix (ECM) through controlled compositional, structural, mechanical, and biochemical signals, thereby enabling the development of sophisticated 3D spheroids, organoids, and Organ-on-Chip systems. These biomaterial-enhanced platforms are essential for precise evaluation of immunotoxicity, as they promote human-specific immune responses and targeted immunomodulation, and for carcinogenicity, as they accurately replicate the tumor microenvironment, affect cancer cell behavior, and enable patient-derived models. Moreover, we underscore the synergistic amalgamation of these biomaterial-based models with omics technologies and computational methodologies (QSAR, AI/ML) for thorough molecular insights and rational design. Despite ongoing challenges in standardization and high-throughput compatibility, the strategic utilization of biomaterials is set to transform predictive toxicology, expedite drug discovery, and promote personalized medicine, thereby diminishing dependence on animal testing and improving human safety.
The challenges of conventional animal models and two-dimensional (2D) in vitro cell cultures in effectively forecasting human toxicity have prompted a significant shift towards New Approach Methodologies (NAMs). This development centers on advanced humanized in vitro co-culture models that offer improved physiological relevance for toxicological assessment. This perspective highlights the critical role of biomaterials in the creation of complex microenvironments. This study demonstrates how biomaterials effectively mimic the original extracellular matrix (ECM) through controlled compositional, structural, mechanical, and biochemical signals, thereby enabling the development of sophisticated 3D spheroids, organoids, and Organ-on-Chip systems. These biomaterial-enhanced platforms are essential for precise evaluation of immunotoxicity, as they promote human-specific immune responses and targeted immunomodulation, and for carcinogenicity, as they accurately replicate the tumor microenvironment, affect cancer cell behavior, and enable patient-derived models. Moreover, we underscore the synergistic amalgamation of these biomaterial-based models with omics technologies and computational methodologies (QSAR, AI/ML) for thorough molecular insights and rational design. Despite ongoing challenges in standardization and high-throughput compatibility, the strategic utilization of biomaterials is set to transform predictive toxicology, expedite drug discovery, and promote personalized medicine, thereby diminishing dependence on animal testing and improving human safety.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.37349/ebmx.2025.101351
This article belongs to the special issue Bioinspired Material for Regenerative Medicine
Aim:
Peripheral nerve injuries (PNIs) often result in a diminished quality of life for those affected and are the most common nervous system injury, with limited treatment options. Regenerative medicine presents novel biomaterial and cell-based therapies to repair the damaged tissue. Graphene oxide (GO), and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have the potential to serve as components to treat PNI. This study evaluates the systemic toxicity of GO and xenogenic human MSCs by analyzing the peripheral blood immune phenotype when a novel nerve guidance conduit (NGC) is implanted in a rat model for six months.
Methods:
A 10-mm long sciatic nerve defect model was created in 8–10-week-old Lewis rats. Four treatment groups were generated: autograft (positive control), poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) NGC, PLGA NGC with 0.25% GO, and PLGA/GO NGC seeded with 1 × 106 human adipose-derived MSCs. Tail blood was collected before surgery, and at 24 hours, 2 weeks, 2, 3, 5, and 6 months after surgery. Hematological analyses were carried out to evaluate systemic changes, if any, in peripheral immune cell types, namely, T lymphocytes, B lymphocytes, natural killer cells, and macrophages. The treated and contralateral sciatic nerves were excised, paraffin embedded, sectioned, and H&E stained, to identify any local foreign body rejection.
Results:
Treatment groups with GO and MSCs displayed percent total values of peripheral immune cells equivalent to the autograft at each time point. There was no evidence of an inflammatory response in the histological samples.
Conclusions:
The lack of changes in immune phenotype demonstrates a lack of nanotoxicity of the graphene nanoparticles and no evidence of adverse effects due to the MSCs. This was further supported by a lack of local foreign body response at the site of implantation. Overall, the PLGA/GO NGC + MSCs construct is biocompatible for six months in a rat PNI model, exhibiting a potential for clinical translation.
Aim:
Peripheral nerve injuries (PNIs) often result in a diminished quality of life for those affected and are the most common nervous system injury, with limited treatment options. Regenerative medicine presents novel biomaterial and cell-based therapies to repair the damaged tissue. Graphene oxide (GO), and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have the potential to serve as components to treat PNI. This study evaluates the systemic toxicity of GO and xenogenic human MSCs by analyzing the peripheral blood immune phenotype when a novel nerve guidance conduit (NGC) is implanted in a rat model for six months.
Methods:
A 10-mm long sciatic nerve defect model was created in 8–10-week-old Lewis rats. Four treatment groups were generated: autograft (positive control), poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) NGC, PLGA NGC with 0.25% GO, and PLGA/GO NGC seeded with 1 × 106 human adipose-derived MSCs. Tail blood was collected before surgery, and at 24 hours, 2 weeks, 2, 3, 5, and 6 months after surgery. Hematological analyses were carried out to evaluate systemic changes, if any, in peripheral immune cell types, namely, T lymphocytes, B lymphocytes, natural killer cells, and macrophages. The treated and contralateral sciatic nerves were excised, paraffin embedded, sectioned, and H&E stained, to identify any local foreign body rejection.
Results:
Treatment groups with GO and MSCs displayed percent total values of peripheral immune cells equivalent to the autograft at each time point. There was no evidence of an inflammatory response in the histological samples.
Conclusions:
The lack of changes in immune phenotype demonstrates a lack of nanotoxicity of the graphene nanoparticles and no evidence of adverse effects due to the MSCs. This was further supported by a lack of local foreign body response at the site of implantation. Overall, the PLGA/GO NGC + MSCs construct is biocompatible for six months in a rat PNI model, exhibiting a potential for clinical translation.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.37349/ebmx.2025.101352
Aim:
To evaluate the precision of computer-assisted surgery simulation in mandibular condyle reconstruction using a costochondral graft.
Methods:
Ten patients (mean age: 14.5 years) with temporomandibular joint (TMJ) pathology and associated pain were included in the study. All patients underwent TMJ reconstruction using costochondral grafts planned through computer-assisted surgical simulation. Preoperative assessment included mouth opening, facial asymmetry, and the differences between planned and actual mandibular positioning.
Results:
Postoperative mouth opening was significantly improved in all patients, and facial profile modifications were enhanced. The site of the costochondral graft relative to the glenoid fossa was found to be satisfactory in postoperative radiographs, computed tomography images, and quantitative analysis.
Conclusions:
The results of this study demonstrate that virtual surgical planning combined with 3D-printed guiding templates enhanced treatment planning, provided precise osteotomy guidance, facilitated accurate repositioning of bony segments, and improved the contouring of mandibular anatomy in the management of TMJ deformities (ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT06811415).
Aim:
To evaluate the precision of computer-assisted surgery simulation in mandibular condyle reconstruction using a costochondral graft.
Methods:
Ten patients (mean age: 14.5 years) with temporomandibular joint (TMJ) pathology and associated pain were included in the study. All patients underwent TMJ reconstruction using costochondral grafts planned through computer-assisted surgical simulation. Preoperative assessment included mouth opening, facial asymmetry, and the differences between planned and actual mandibular positioning.
Results:
Postoperative mouth opening was significantly improved in all patients, and facial profile modifications were enhanced. The site of the costochondral graft relative to the glenoid fossa was found to be satisfactory in postoperative radiographs, computed tomography images, and quantitative analysis.
Conclusions:
The results of this study demonstrate that virtual surgical planning combined with 3D-printed guiding templates enhanced treatment planning, provided precise osteotomy guidance, facilitated accurate repositioning of bony segments, and improved the contouring of mandibular anatomy in the management of TMJ deformities (ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT06811415).
DOI: https://doi.org/10.37349/ebmx.2025.101350
Graphene-based nanomaterials are promising candidates for neuromuscular regeneration due to their electrical conductivity, mechanical strength, and functionalizability. In this perspective, reduced graphene oxide (rGO) nanocomposites decorated with gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) or silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) were synthesized via a one-step green process using Camellia sinensis (tea) extracts. The extracts acted as reducing and stabilizing agents and left bioactive catechins and polyphenols adsorbed on the graphene surface. The resulting nanocomposites combined structural support, electrical conductivity, and bioactive molecular modulation. rGO can provide scaffolding for cell growth, while the retained plant metabolites contributed antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. Incorporation of metallic nanoparticles enhanced mechanical strength, surface reactivity, and antimicrobial properties. These multifunctional graphene-metal nanocomposites offer a sustainable and biocompatible platform for guiding neuromuscular regeneration and represent a promising basis for future clinical translation.
Graphene-based nanomaterials are promising candidates for neuromuscular regeneration due to their electrical conductivity, mechanical strength, and functionalizability. In this perspective, reduced graphene oxide (rGO) nanocomposites decorated with gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) or silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) were synthesized via a one-step green process using Camellia sinensis (tea) extracts. The extracts acted as reducing and stabilizing agents and left bioactive catechins and polyphenols adsorbed on the graphene surface. The resulting nanocomposites combined structural support, electrical conductivity, and bioactive molecular modulation. rGO can provide scaffolding for cell growth, while the retained plant metabolites contributed antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. Incorporation of metallic nanoparticles enhanced mechanical strength, surface reactivity, and antimicrobial properties. These multifunctional graphene-metal nanocomposites offer a sustainable and biocompatible platform for guiding neuromuscular regeneration and represent a promising basis for future clinical translation.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.37349/ebmx.2025.101349
This article belongs to the special issue Green Nanoparticles for Biomedical Applications
Indications for resection of maxillofacial and mandibular skeletal structures include extirpation of benign and malignant tumors, trauma, and congenital defects. Reconstruction of these structures often demands free tissue transfer incorporating bone and/or soft tissue with placement of rigid titanium implants to span the bony defect and anchor the autologous bone. Historically, such implants were mass-produced in standard formats, requiring manual bending during surgery to the patient’s specific bony anatomy. Recent technological and manufacturing advancements have permitted the use of three-dimensional (3D) printed, patient-specific maxillofacial and mandibular reconstructive prosthetics and implants. Preoperative 3D printing of patient-specific prosthetics and implants composed of titanium has revolutionized maxillofacial and mandibular reconstructive surgery and has been associated with improvements in operative efficiency, enhanced functional outcomes, and reduced complication rates in early studies. Herein, we review the history and current state of metal 3D printing of prosthetics and implants for head and neck oncologic reconstruction and posit future directions for innovation and surgical refinement in this area.
Indications for resection of maxillofacial and mandibular skeletal structures include extirpation of benign and malignant tumors, trauma, and congenital defects. Reconstruction of these structures often demands free tissue transfer incorporating bone and/or soft tissue with placement of rigid titanium implants to span the bony defect and anchor the autologous bone. Historically, such implants were mass-produced in standard formats, requiring manual bending during surgery to the patient’s specific bony anatomy. Recent technological and manufacturing advancements have permitted the use of three-dimensional (3D) printed, patient-specific maxillofacial and mandibular reconstructive prosthetics and implants. Preoperative 3D printing of patient-specific prosthetics and implants composed of titanium has revolutionized maxillofacial and mandibular reconstructive surgery and has been associated with improvements in operative efficiency, enhanced functional outcomes, and reduced complication rates in early studies. Herein, we review the history and current state of metal 3D printing of prosthetics and implants for head and neck oncologic reconstruction and posit future directions for innovation and surgical refinement in this area.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.37349/ebmx.2025.101348
This article belongs to the special issue Metal 3D Printing of Biometals for Prostheses and Implants
Aim:
The high cost and weight of conventional metal pylons used in lower-limb prostheses limit accessibility and increase patient burden. This study evaluated whether a 3D-printed, polylactic acid (PLA) prosthetic pylon, incorporating a biomimetic lattice, meets ISO 10328 mechanical requirements and can serve as a lightweight, cost-effective alternative to metal pylons.
Methods:
A lattice shell inspired by the Euplectella aspergillum sponge architecture was designed to envelop a cylindrical core to mitigate failure under compression and torsion. Pylons were fabricated by fused deposition modeling (FDM) using PLA at 25% infill with a net pylon radius of 6.66 mm. Mechanical testing followed ISO 10328 protocols and included ultimate static compression, torsion, and cyclic compression (dynamic) tests. Performance metrics recorded included ultimate load capacity, cycle endurance, safety factors for compression and torsion, gross mass, and production material usage.
Results:
Optimized PLA pylons passed all ISO 10328 tests with no structural failure or visible defects. The pylons sustained a maximum static compression load of 7,901 N (ISO target: 4,480 N), completed > 3 million cycles under dynamic loading without failure, and achieved safety factors of 2.69 (compression) and 2.15 (torsion). The 3D-printed units weighed ~282 g, approximately 30% lighter than comparable metal pylons (~400 g), and material/geometry optimization reduced material use and manufacturing cost.
Conclusions:
PLA-based, 3D-printed pylons with a biomimetic lattice architecture demonstrate sufficient mechanical integrity to satisfy ISO 10328 requirements and offer a lightweight, lower-cost alternative to traditional metal pylons. These findings support further in-vitro and in-vivo validation and highlight the potential for additive manufacturing to expand prosthetic accessibility—particularly in resource-limited settings.
Aim:
The high cost and weight of conventional metal pylons used in lower-limb prostheses limit accessibility and increase patient burden. This study evaluated whether a 3D-printed, polylactic acid (PLA) prosthetic pylon, incorporating a biomimetic lattice, meets ISO 10328 mechanical requirements and can serve as a lightweight, cost-effective alternative to metal pylons.
Methods:
A lattice shell inspired by the Euplectella aspergillum sponge architecture was designed to envelop a cylindrical core to mitigate failure under compression and torsion. Pylons were fabricated by fused deposition modeling (FDM) using PLA at 25% infill with a net pylon radius of 6.66 mm. Mechanical testing followed ISO 10328 protocols and included ultimate static compression, torsion, and cyclic compression (dynamic) tests. Performance metrics recorded included ultimate load capacity, cycle endurance, safety factors for compression and torsion, gross mass, and production material usage.
Results:
Optimized PLA pylons passed all ISO 10328 tests with no structural failure or visible defects. The pylons sustained a maximum static compression load of 7,901 N (ISO target: 4,480 N), completed > 3 million cycles under dynamic loading without failure, and achieved safety factors of 2.69 (compression) and 2.15 (torsion). The 3D-printed units weighed ~282 g, approximately 30% lighter than comparable metal pylons (~400 g), and material/geometry optimization reduced material use and manufacturing cost.
Conclusions:
PLA-based, 3D-printed pylons with a biomimetic lattice architecture demonstrate sufficient mechanical integrity to satisfy ISO 10328 requirements and offer a lightweight, lower-cost alternative to traditional metal pylons. These findings support further in-vitro and in-vivo validation and highlight the potential for additive manufacturing to expand prosthetic accessibility—particularly in resource-limited settings.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.37349/ebmx.2025.101347
This article belongs to the special issue Metal 3D Printing of Biometals for Prostheses and Implants
Modeling cancer cell invasion requires physiologically relevant systems, yet traditional 2D/3D assays and animal models fail to capture the biochemical and mechanical complexity of the human extracellular matrix (ECM). The human amniotic membrane (AM) is a clinically approved, abundant, and immunologically privileged tissue with a rich ECM composition and favorable mechanical properties. Despite its extensive use in regenerative medicine, its potential as a cancer invasion scaffold remains underexplored. We propose repurposing decellularized AM (dAM) as a human-derived ECM platform to study tumor invasion. dAM retains structural proteins, growth factor reservoirs, and stiffness gradients that influence epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and invasion pathways. Compared with conventional matrices, it offers improved biochemical fidelity and compatibility with patient-derived organoids. Key challenges, including donor variability, decellularization optimization, and reproducibility, are also addressed. dAM provides a non-invasive, scalable, and physiologically relevant tool for cancer invasion assays, drug screening, and patient-specific models. Its integration into oncology research may enhance translational relevance and accelerate personalized medicine.
Modeling cancer cell invasion requires physiologically relevant systems, yet traditional 2D/3D assays and animal models fail to capture the biochemical and mechanical complexity of the human extracellular matrix (ECM). The human amniotic membrane (AM) is a clinically approved, abundant, and immunologically privileged tissue with a rich ECM composition and favorable mechanical properties. Despite its extensive use in regenerative medicine, its potential as a cancer invasion scaffold remains underexplored. We propose repurposing decellularized AM (dAM) as a human-derived ECM platform to study tumor invasion. dAM retains structural proteins, growth factor reservoirs, and stiffness gradients that influence epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and invasion pathways. Compared with conventional matrices, it offers improved biochemical fidelity and compatibility with patient-derived organoids. Key challenges, including donor variability, decellularization optimization, and reproducibility, are also addressed. dAM provides a non-invasive, scalable, and physiologically relevant tool for cancer invasion assays, drug screening, and patient-specific models. Its integration into oncology research may enhance translational relevance and accelerate personalized medicine.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.37349/ebmx.2025.101346
Aim:
The decellularization process aims to remove cellular components from the tissues while preserving the ultrastructural composition of the extracellular matrix (ECM). Decellularization of bone is gaining attention as a biological scaffold due to its unique histoarchitecture, which consists of both organic and inorganic compounds. This study aims to develop a biological bone ECM using a novel decellularization method for bone regeneration.
Methods:
Rabbit and rat bone tissues were decellularized using a novel process that combines physical, chemical, and enzymatic methods with 0.1% SDS. Bone tissues were evaluated in terms of histology, biochemistry, and biomechanical tests, both before and after decellularization. Additionally, decellularized bone substitutes were recellularized with preosteoblast cells to assess the cytotoxic effect of the decellularization process.
Results:
Our method effectively removes cellular components while preserving both organic and inorganic compounds. We achieved a 95% in DNA content for rabbit bone and 92% for rat bone. The biochemical and biomechanical properties remained unchanged, and mineralization features were preserved after decellularization. The cell culture results revealed that decellularized bone extracellular matrix (dbECM) is biocompatible, bioactive, and provides a suitable environment for cell growth.
Conclusions:
This study demonstrates that our novel decellularization method effectively develops biological bone ECM containing both organic and inorganic compounds while utilizing minimal chemical concentration and incubation time. It is foreseen that the resulting decellularized bone could serve as a biological substitute, providing a favorable microenvironment for bone regeneration.
Aim:
The decellularization process aims to remove cellular components from the tissues while preserving the ultrastructural composition of the extracellular matrix (ECM). Decellularization of bone is gaining attention as a biological scaffold due to its unique histoarchitecture, which consists of both organic and inorganic compounds. This study aims to develop a biological bone ECM using a novel decellularization method for bone regeneration.
Methods:
Rabbit and rat bone tissues were decellularized using a novel process that combines physical, chemical, and enzymatic methods with 0.1% SDS. Bone tissues were evaluated in terms of histology, biochemistry, and biomechanical tests, both before and after decellularization. Additionally, decellularized bone substitutes were recellularized with preosteoblast cells to assess the cytotoxic effect of the decellularization process.
Results:
Our method effectively removes cellular components while preserving both organic and inorganic compounds. We achieved a 95% in DNA content for rabbit bone and 92% for rat bone. The biochemical and biomechanical properties remained unchanged, and mineralization features were preserved after decellularization. The cell culture results revealed that decellularized bone extracellular matrix (dbECM) is biocompatible, bioactive, and provides a suitable environment for cell growth.
Conclusions:
This study demonstrates that our novel decellularization method effectively develops biological bone ECM containing both organic and inorganic compounds while utilizing minimal chemical concentration and incubation time. It is foreseen that the resulting decellularized bone could serve as a biological substitute, providing a favorable microenvironment for bone regeneration.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.37349/ebmx.2025.101345
This article belongs to the special issue Nature-Based Biomaterials for Biomedical Applications
This review presents key molecular biology techniques used to investigate interactions between biomaterials and biological systems, emphasizing their role in evaluating biocompatibility and cellular responses. We focus on methodologies such as recombinant DNA technology, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), in situ hybridization, immunocytochemistry (ICC), and immunohistochemistry (IHC). These tools enable the detection and quantification of gene and protein expression, particularly those involved in inflammation and tissue regeneration, providing molecular-level insights into how cells respond to biomaterial cues. We discuss the relevance of these techniques in identifying inflammatory markers, tracking cell differentiation, and understanding tissue integration processes, as well as how their implementation faces technical challenges, including interference from the physicochemical properties of biomaterials, difficulties in sample preparation, and the standardization of protocols across different platforms. Addressing these limitations is vital to ensure data reliability and reproducibility. Looking ahead, we highlight emerging opportunities involving the integration of 3D imaging technologies and artificial intelligence to manage and interpret high-dimensional biological data. This article also serves as a practical tool for emerging investigators who are entering the field of biomaterials, offering accessible guidance on the selection and application of essential molecular biology techniques. These innovations promise to accelerate the rational design of biomaterials tailored to specific clinical applications and patient needs. In conclusion, molecular biology techniques provide a foundational toolkit for characterizing biological responses to biomaterials, supporting the development of safer and more effective therapeutic materials and empowering emerging investigators to contribute meaningfully to the next generation of biomedical solutions.
This review presents key molecular biology techniques used to investigate interactions between biomaterials and biological systems, emphasizing their role in evaluating biocompatibility and cellular responses. We focus on methodologies such as recombinant DNA technology, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), in situ hybridization, immunocytochemistry (ICC), and immunohistochemistry (IHC). These tools enable the detection and quantification of gene and protein expression, particularly those involved in inflammation and tissue regeneration, providing molecular-level insights into how cells respond to biomaterial cues. We discuss the relevance of these techniques in identifying inflammatory markers, tracking cell differentiation, and understanding tissue integration processes, as well as how their implementation faces technical challenges, including interference from the physicochemical properties of biomaterials, difficulties in sample preparation, and the standardization of protocols across different platforms. Addressing these limitations is vital to ensure data reliability and reproducibility. Looking ahead, we highlight emerging opportunities involving the integration of 3D imaging technologies and artificial intelligence to manage and interpret high-dimensional biological data. This article also serves as a practical tool for emerging investigators who are entering the field of biomaterials, offering accessible guidance on the selection and application of essential molecular biology techniques. These innovations promise to accelerate the rational design of biomaterials tailored to specific clinical applications and patient needs. In conclusion, molecular biology techniques provide a foundational toolkit for characterizing biological responses to biomaterials, supporting the development of safer and more effective therapeutic materials and empowering emerging investigators to contribute meaningfully to the next generation of biomedical solutions.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.37349/ebmx.2025.101344
