Acid-hydrolyzed starch material with increased crystallinity compared with native starch, preservation of crystalline domains, and characterization evidence such as X-ray diffraction (XRD) and particle size/morphology analysis.
Not all starch nanoparticles are SNCs.
Acid-modified starch
Starch modified by acid hydrolysis with altered physicochemical, flow, or compression properties.
Considered nanocrystalline only when increased crystallinity or crystalline character is reported.
Nanostarch/starch nanoparticles
Nanoscale starch particles prepared by chemical, physical, or enzymatic methods.
May be amorphous; not classified as SNC unless crystallinity is confirmed.
Agglomerated starch-based excipients
Larger engineered particles prepared from acid modified or nanocrystalline starch to improve flow and tableting performance.
Discussed separately because direct compression performance may result from agglomeration or spray drying rather than the nanocrystal state alone.
During the preparation of this work, the authors used Grammarly tool for language editing, grammar improvement, and formatting assistance. After utilizing the tool/service, the authors reviewed and edited the content as necessary and take full responsibility for the final content of the publication.
Author contributions
MF: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Data curation, Formal analysis, Resources, Supervision, Visualization, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. SS: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Validation, Visualization, Writing—review & editing. Both authors read and approved the submitted version.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
Open Exploration maintains a neutral stance on jurisdictional claims in published institutional affiliations and maps. All opinions expressed in this article are the personal views of the author(s) and do not represent the stance of the editorial team or the publisher.
References
Zhou L, Fang D, Wang M, Li M, Li Y, Ji N, et al. Preparation and characterization of waxy maize starch nanocrystals with a high yield via dry-heated oxalic acid hydrolysis.Food Chem. 2020;318:126479. [DOI] [PubMed]
Velásquez-Castillo LE, Leite MA, Ditchfield C, Sobral PJDA, Moraes ICF. Quinoa starch nanocrystals production by acid hydrolysis: Kinetics and properties.Int J Biol Macromol. 2020;143:93–101. [DOI] [PubMed]
Li C, Hu Y. Effects of acid hydrolysis on the evolution of starch fine molecular structures and gelatinization properties.Food Chem. 2021;353:129449. [DOI] [PubMed]
Vieira EF, Amaral T, Domingues VF, Delerue-Matos C. Hydrophobicity Strategies of Starch-Based Films: Recent Advances and Perspectives.Polymers (Basel). 2026;18:490. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Zhu C, Li J, Wang Z, Guo D. High-amylose starch nanocrystals produced via sulfuric acid hydrolysis and ultrasonication: impact on resistant starch content and emulsification capacity.LWT. 2025;225:117915. [DOI]
Antares A, Wrasiati LP, Harsojuwono BA, Widarta IWR, Yulianti NL, Masruchin N, et al. Physicochemical characteristic of corn starch nanoparticles obtained by acid hydrolysis method.BIO Web Conf. 2026;224:01003. [DOI]
Pinto VZ, Pinto CC, de Souza SM, Moomand K, Biduski B, dos Santos GHF, et al. Physical pretreatment on common bean starch at acid hydrolyzed nanocrystals structure and properties.Starc-Stärke. 2024;76:2300204. [DOI]
Kim H, Park DJ, Kim J, Lim S. Preparation of crystalline starch nanoparticles using cold acid hydrolysis and ultrasonication.Carbohydr Polym. 2013;98:295–301. [DOI] [PubMed]
Kim H, Lee JH, Kim J, Lim W, Lim S. Characterization of nanoparticles prepared by acid hydrolysis of various starches.Starch-Stärke. 2012;64:367–73. [DOI]
Kim H, Han J, Kweon D, Park J, Lim S. Effect of ultrasonic treatments on nanoparticle preparation of acid-hydrolyzed waxy maize starch.Carbohydr Polym. 2013;93:582–8. [DOI] [PubMed]
Harun Z, Arsad A, Pang AL, Zaini MAA, Abdurrahman M, Awang N, et al. Acid Hydrolysis and Optimization Techniques for Nanoparticles Preparation: Current Review.Appl Biochem Biotechnol. 2022;194:3779–801. [DOI] [PubMed]
Martins PC, Latorres JM, Martins VG. Impact of starch nanocrystals on the physicochemical, thermal and structural characteristics of starch-based films.LWT. 2022;156:113041. [DOI]
Mostafa K, Ameen H, Morsy M, El-ebiassy A, El-Sanabary A, Adel M, et al. Production of high-performance textiles via pioneering strengthening approach using starch nanoparticles.J Ind Text. 2019;50:278–92. [DOI]
Gamage A, Thiviya P, Mani S, Ponnusamy PG, Manamperi A, Evon P, et al. Environmental Properties and Applications of Biodegradable Starch-Based Nanocomposites.Polymers (Basel). 2022;14:4578. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Marques NDN, Garcia CSDN, Madruga LYC, Villetti MA, De De Filho MSMS, Ito EN, et al. Turning industrial waste into a valuable bioproduct: Starch from mango kernel derivative to oil industry mango starch derivative in oil industry.J Renew Mater. 2019;7:139–52. [DOI]
Haaj SB, Thielemans W, Magnin A, Boufi S. Starch nanocrystal stabilized Pickering emulsion polymerization for nanocomposites with improved performance.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2014;6:8263–73. [DOI] [PubMed]
Azfaralariff A, Farahfaiqah F, Joe LS, Fazry S, Mohamed M, Nazar MF, et al. Sago starch nanocrystal-stabilized Pickering emulsions: Stability and rheological behavior.Int J Biol Macromol. 2021;182:197–206. [DOI] [PubMed]
Iswalal M, Mellem JJ. Characterization of Starch Nanocrystals from Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet and Its Application as a Stabilizer in Pickering Emulsions.Starch-Stärke. 2023;75:2300030. [DOI]
Duan B, Sun P, Wang X, Yang C. Preparation and properties of starch nanocrystals/carboxymethyl chitosan nanocomposite films.Starch-Stärke. 2011;63:528–35. [DOI]
Zhang X, Huang J, Chang PR, Li J, Chen Y, Wang D, et al. Structure and properties of polysaccharide nanocrystal-doped supramolecular hydrogels based on Cyclodextrin inclusion.Polymer. 2010;51:4398–407. [DOI]
Bakrudeen HB, Sudarvizhi C, Reddy BSR. Starch nanocrystals based hydrogel: Construction, characterizations and transdermal application.Mater Sci Eng C Mater Biol Appl. 2016;68:880–9. [DOI] [PubMed]
Bamiro OA, Bennett LL, Odeniyi MA. Native and modified starch nano-crystals loaded with doxorubicin mediated apoptosis in human breast cancer MCF7 cells.J Clin Images Med Case Rep. 2024;5:2921. [DOI]
Xiao H, Yang T, Lin Q, Liu G, Zhang L, Yu F, et al. Acetylated starch nanocrystals: Preparation and antitumor drug delivery study.Int J Biol Macromol. 2016;89:456–64. [DOI] [PubMed]
Odeniyi MA, Adepoju AO, Jaiyeoba KT. Native and Modified Digitaria exilis Starch Nanoparticles as a Carrier System for the Controlled Release of Naproxen.Starch-Stärke. 2019;71:1900067. [DOI]
Desai SK, Mondal D, Bera S. First-line anti-tubercutilosis drugs-loaded starch nanocrystals for combating the threat of M. tuberculosis H37Rv strain.Carbohydr Res. 2020;495:108070. [DOI] [PubMed]
Odeku OA, Picker-Freyer KM. Characterization of acid modified Dioscorea starches as direct compression excipient.Pharm Dev Technol. 2009;14:259–70. [DOI] [PubMed]
Okunlola A. Design of bilayer tablets using modified Dioscorea starches as novel excipients for immediate and sustained release of aceclofenac sodium.Front Pharmacol. 2015;5:294. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Charoenthai N, Wickramanayaka A, Sungthongjeen S, Puttipipatkhachorn S. Use of cassava starch nanocrystals to make a robust rupturable pulsatile release pellet.J Drug Deliv Sci Technol. 2018;47:283–90. [DOI]
Odeku OA, Akinwande BL. Effect of the mode of incorporation on the disintegrant properties of acid modified water and white yam starches.Saudi Pharm J. 2012;20:171–5. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
LeCorre D, Bras J, Dufresne A. Evidence of micro- and nanoscaled particles during starch nanocrystals preparation and their isolation.Biomacromolecules. 2011;12:3039–46. [DOI] [PubMed]
Jiang S, Liu C, Han Z, Xiong L, Sun Q. Evaluation of rheological behavior of starch nanocrystals by acid hydrolysis and starch nanoparticles by self-assembly: A comparative study.Food Hydrocolloids. 2016;52:914–22. [DOI]
Wei B, Xu X, Jin Z, Tian Y. Surface chemical compositions and dispersity of starch nanocrystals formed by sulfuric and hydrochloric acid hydrolysis.PLoS One. 2014;9:e86024. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Li D, Yang N, Zhou X, Jin Y, Guo L, Xie Z, et al. Characterization of acid hydrolysis of granular potato starch under induced electric field.Food Hydrocolloids. 2017;71:198–206. [DOI]
Jo M, Ban C, Goh KK, Choi YJ. Enhancement of the gut-retention time of resveratrol using waxy maize starch nanocrystal-stabilized and chitosan-coated Pickering emulsions.Food Hydrocolloids. 2021;112:106291. [DOI]
Atichokudom-chai N, Shobsngob S, Chinachoti P, Varavinit S. A Study of Some Physicochemical Properties of High-Crystalline Tapioca Starch.Starch/Stärke. 2001;53:577. [DOI]
Putaux J, Molina-Boisseau S, Momaur T, Dufresne A. Platelet nanocrystals resulting from the disruption of waxy maize starch granules by acid hydrolysis.Biomacromolecules. 2003;4:1198–202. [DOI] [PubMed]
Angellier H, Choisnard L, Molina-Boisseau S, Ozil P, Dufresne A. Optimization of the preparation of aqueous suspensions of waxy maize starch nanocrystals using a response surface methodology.Biomacromolecules. 2004;5:1545–51. [DOI] [PubMed]
Hu W, Jiang F, Ma C, Wang J, Lv X, Yu X, et al. Formation mechanism of starch nanocrystals from waxy rice starch and their separation by differential centrifugation.Food Chem. 2023;412:135536. [DOI] [PubMed]
Shujun W, Jinglin Y, Jiugao Y, Hongyan L. The partial characterization of C-type rhizoma Dioscorea starch granule during acid hydrolysis.Food Hydrocolloids. 2008;22:531–7. [DOI]
LeCorre D, Vahanian E, Dufresne A, Bras J. Enzymatic pretreatment for preparing starch nanocrystals.Biomacromolecules. 2012;13:132–7. [DOI] [PubMed]
Amini AM, Razavi SMA. A fast and efficient approach to prepare starch nanocrystals from normal corn starch.Food Hydrocolloids. 2016;57:132–8. [DOI]
Saeng-on J, Aht-Ong D. Production of Starch Nanocrystals from Agricultural Materials Using Mild Acid Hydrolysis Method: Optimization and Characterization.Polymers from Renewable Resources. 2017;8:91–116. [DOI]
Dai L, Li C, Zhang J, Cheng F. Preparation and characterization of starch nanocrystals combining ball milling with acid hydrolysis.Carbohydr Polym. 2018;180:122–7. [DOI] [PubMed]
Hao Y, Chen Y, Li Q, Gao Q. Preparation of starch nanocrystals through enzymatic pretreatment from waxy potato starch.Carbohydr Polym. 2018;184:171–7. [DOI] [PubMed]
Dukare AS, Arputharaj A, Bharimalla A, Saxena S, Vigneshwaran N. Nanostarch production by enzymatic hydrolysis of cereal and tuber starches.Carbohydr Polym Technol Appl. 2021;2:100121. [DOI]
Dai L, Zhang J, Cheng F. Succeeded starch nanocrystals preparation combining heat-moisture treatment with acid hydrolysis.Food Chem. 2019;278:350–6. [DOI] [PubMed]
Nlandu HM, Chorfa N, Bekacemi K, Hamoudi S. Potato starch nanocrystal preparation via supercritical carbon dioxide pretreatment combined with enzymatic hydrolysis.BioResources. 2021;16:7671.
Hu W, Yang M, Jiang F, Ma C, Yu X, Du S. A new sight separation for collecting starch nanocrystals with small size and high crystallinity based on the hydrolysis mechanism.Int J Biol Macromol. 2023;253:126604. [DOI] [PubMed]
Li S, Zhou W, Huang C, Hu Y, Gao Q, Chen Y. Rapid preparation of starch nanocrystals by the mixed acid of sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid.Int J Biol Macromol. 2023;232:123402. [DOI] [PubMed]
Hu W, Hu X, Jiang F, Zhu Y, Yang M, Dan Q, et al. High-efficiency preparation of starch nanocrystals with small size and high crystallinity by ethanol-acid penetration and dry-heating pretreatment.Food Chem. 2024;439:138134. [DOI] [PubMed]
Jinglin Y, Shujun W, Fengmin J, Sun L, Yu J. The structure of C-type Rhizoma Dioscorea starch granule revealed by acid hydrolysis method.Food Chemistry. 2009;113:585–91. [DOI]
Xia L, Wenyuan G, Juan W, Qianqian J, Luqi H. Comparison of the morphological, crystalline, and thermal properties of different crystalline types of starches after acid hydrolysis.Starch-Stärke. 2010;62:686–96. [DOI]
Md Shahrodin NS, Rahmat AR, Arsad A. Synthesis and Characterization of Cassava Starch Nanocrystals by Hydrolysis Method.AMR. 2015;1113:446–52. [DOI]
Chen H, Aburub A, Sun CC. Direct Compression Tablet Containing 99% Active Ingredient-A Tale of Spherical Crystallization.J Pharm Sci. 2019;108:1396–400. [DOI] [PubMed]
Capece M, Huang Z, Davé R. Insight Into a Novel Strategy for the Design of Tablet Formulations Intended for Direct Compression.J Pharm Sci. 2017;106:1608–17. [DOI] [PubMed]
Puchongkavarin H, Bergthaller W, Shobsngob S, Varavinit S. Characterization and Utilization of Acid‐modified Rice Starches for Use in Pharmaceutical Tablet Compression.Starch-Stärke. 2003;55:464–75. [DOI]
Akin-Ajani OD, Itiola OA, Odeku OA. Effect of acid modification on the material and compaction properties of fonio and sweet potato starches.Starch-Stärke. 2014;66:749–59. [DOI]
Tessema B, Belete A,Gebre-Mariam T. Physicochemical characterization of acid modified Dioscorea starch and its evaluation as directly compressible excipient in tablet formulation.J Drug Deliv Ther. 2015;5:64–71.
Gulla A, Getachew A, Haile TG, Molla F. Evaluation of Acid-Modified Ethiopian Potato (Plectranthus edulis) Starch as Directly Compressible Tablet Excipient.Biomed Res Int. 2020;2020:9325173. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Siriwachirachai C, Pongjanyakul T. Acid and alkali modifications of tapioca starches: Physicochemical characterizations and evaluations for use in tablets.J Drug Deliv Sci Technol. 2022;68:103068. [DOI]
Gashaw S, Getachew A, Mola F. Characterization of Acid Hydrolyzed Taro Boloso-I (Colocasia esculenta Cultivar) Starch as a Diluent in Direct Compression of Tablets.Adv Pharmacol Pharm Sci. 2024;2024:6560070. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Siriwachirachai C, Pongjanyakul T. Particle Agglomeration of Acid-Modified Tapioca Starches: Characterization and Use as Direct Compression Fillers in Tablets.Pharmaceutics. 2022;14:1245. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Atichokudomchai N, Varavinit S. Characterization and utilization of acid-modified cross-linked Tapioca starch in pharmaceutical tablets.Carbohydrate Polymers. 2003;53:263–70. [DOI]
