Comparative analysis of medicinal plants, phytochemicals, and pharmacological roles.
| Plant (species). | Major phytochemicals identified. | Pharmacological/medicinal activities. | Overlapping mechanisms/shared effects. | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pogostemon cablin Benth. (Patchouli). | Patchouli alcohol, pogostone, patchoulene epoxide, α-/β-patchoulene, α-bulnesene, seychellene, eugenol, pogostol, pachypodol, flavonoids, terpenoids, phytosterols, and glycosides. | Antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, antihypertensive, antidepressant, aphrodisiac, anti-peptic ulcer, antifungal (C. albicans inhibition), antiaging (ROS suppression, telomere maintenance), and antibacterial (E. faecalis inhibition). | Flavonoid-based antioxidant & anti-inflammatory effects; terpenoid-driven antimicrobial action. | [42, 52, 53, 55] |
| Scorzonera undulata. | Flavonoids (apigenin, luteolin, luteolin-7-O-glucoside, quercetin, kaempferol, naringin), phenolic acids (caffeic, chlorogenic, gallic, ferulic, quinic, vanillic, syringic, protocatechuic), tannins, steroids, fatty acids (palmitic, lactic, malic), and volatile compounds (2,4-di-tert-butylphenol). | Strong antioxidant, anticancer (MCF7 inhibition via apoptosis), anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, cardioprotective, and cytoprotective. | The flavonoids luteolin, apigenin, quercetin, and kaempferol replicate antioxidant/anticancer mechanisms. | [10–12] |
| Scorzonera suberosa, S. latifolia, and S. laciniata. | Vitamins (D, K, α-tocopherol, retinol), flavonoids (rutin, myricetin, morin, quercetin, kaempferol), resveratrol, sugars (fructose, glucose, sucrose), and minerals (Ca, K, Fe, Zn, Mg). | Antioxidant, nutritional, anticancer, cardioprotective. | Shared quercetin and kaempferol confirm common antioxidant and cardioprotective pathways. | [11] |
| Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Nees. | Andrographolide (diterpenoid lactone), flavonoids, and phenolics. | Antiviral (esp. SARS-CoV-2), anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, and immunomodulatory. | Flavonoid antioxidants parallel Scorzonera species; diterpenoid adds a unique antiviral action. | [13] |
| Houttuynia cordata (mentioned in the methods screening). | Flavonoids (quercitrin, hyperoside, and rutin), volatile oils, and alkaloids. | Antiviral, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and immune modulation. | Flavonoid-driven antioxidant activity overlaps with Scorzonera and Patchouli. | [15, 16, 18] |
| Achillea millefolium (Yarrow). | Flavonoids (apigenin, luteolin, and quercetin), sesquiterpene lactones, tannins, and phenolic acids. | Anti-inflammatory, wound healing, antioxidant, digestive aid. | Flavonoid antioxidants (apigenin, luteolin, and quercetin) overlap with S. undulata & patchouli. | [23, 25, 26, 27, 30–34] |
| Scorzonera species (general). | Multiple flavonoids (luteolin, apigenin, quercetin, kaempferol, and naringin), phenolic acids, fatty acids, steroids, and sugars. | Antioxidant, anticancer, cardioprotective, and neuroprotective. | Common flavonoid mechanisms across plants. | [11] |
| Pogostemon cablin (Aceh variety, dental use). | Patchouli alcohol, sesquiterpenes, fatty acids. | Antibacterial (E. faecalis), antifungal (C. albicans in dentures).Modulate inflammatory pathways, particularly platelet-activating factor (PAF) signaling. | Shares antimicrobial terpenoids + phenolics with other plants. | [53, 55–63, 66, 68–75, 77] |