Molecular pathways and representative biomarkers.
| Molecular pathway | Key biomarkers/targets (examples) | Study count (n) |
|---|---|---|
| PI3K/AKT | IRS-1, AKT, p-AKT, GSK3β, IGF-1, GLUT4 | 79 |
| GLUT transporters | GLUT2, GLUT4, SGLT2 | 35 |
| AMPK | ACC, SIRT1, PGC-1α, CPT1, LKB1 | 25 |
| Other pathways | PPARγ, adiponectin, FABP4, NF-κB, TNF-α, IL-6, NLRP3, STAT3, MAPK, ER stress, oxidative stress markers, apoptosis | 38 |
ACC: acetyl-CoA carboxylase; AMPK: AMP-activated protein kinase; CPT1: carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1; ER: endoplasmic reticulum; FABP4: fatty acid-binding protein 4; GLUT: glucose transporter; GSK3β: glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta; IGF-1: insulin-like growth factor-1; IL-6: interleukin-6; IRS-1: insulin receptor substrate 1; LKB1: liver kinase B1; MAPK: mitogen-activated protein kinase; NF-κB: nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells; PGC-1α: peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha; PI3K/AKT: phosphoinositide 3-kinase/protein kinase B; PPARγ: peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma; SGLT2: sodium-glucose cotransporter 2; SIRT1: sirtuin 1; STAT3: signal transducer and activator of transcription 3; TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor-alpha.
The supplementary table for this article is available at: https://www.explorationpub.com/uploads/Article/file/1008139_sup_1.xlsx.
This review benefited from insightful feedback provided by Dr. Kusum Dua, Prof. Asma Wasim, and Timothy G. Leaks (MSc), at the Department of Health Science at the University of the People, whose critical comments helped improve the clarity and depth of our analysis.
CPI: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Software, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. ESMT: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Software, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. EFE: Conceptualization, Investigation, Validation, Resources, Software, Writing—original draft. MRI: Conceptualization, Investigation, Resources, Software, Validation, Writing—original draft. All authors read and approved the submitted version.
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
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The primary data for this review were sourced online from databases listed in the methods. Referenced articles are accessible on PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, and Europe PMC. Additional supporting data are available from the corresponding author upon request.
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