Exploration of Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases

Table 6. Key challenges and future directions in precision immunonutrition.

Source of variability/Challenge	Specific impact on diet-immune response	Future research directions
Host genetics	Differential nutrient sensing (e.g., VDR, PPAR polymorphisms) [194]	Genotype-stratified dietary intervention trials [186].
Gut microbiome	Personal “metabolic filter” determining SCFA, tryptophan metabolite output [189]	Develop microbiome-based algorithms for dietary response prediction [207].
Sex differences	Hormonal regulation of immune cell metabolism [196, 197]	Mandatory sex-stratified design and analysis in all clinical trials [208].
Aging (inflammaging)	Accumulation of senescent, pro-inflammatory immune cells [198]	Test “senolytic” drugs combined with specific anti-inflammatory nutrients.
Measurement and tools	Lack of dynamic, clinically accessible biomarkers of immunometabolism health	Develop wearable sensors for real-time inflammation and metabolite monitoring [191, 204].

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PPAR: peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor; SCFA: short-chain fatty acid; VDR: vitamin D receptor.

Declarations

Acknowledgments

During the preparation of this work, the authors used Google AI tools for copy-editing purposes to improve readability and correct minor grammar and formatting issues. After utilizing the tool, the authors reviewed and edited the content as necessary and took full responsibility for the final content of the publication.

Author contributions

SK: Methodology, Writing—review & editing. TA: Supervision, Writing—review & editing, Validation. MW: Conceptualization, Writing—original draft, Methodology, Investigation. All authors read and approved the submitted version.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Ethical approval

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Consent to participate

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Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

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Funding

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