AhR: aryl hydrocarbon receptor; DCA: deoxycholic acid; FXR: farnesoid X receptor; GPR: G protein-coupled receptor; HDAC: histone deacetylase; LCA: lithocholic acid; SCFAs: short-chain fatty acids; TGR: Takeda G protein-coupled receptor 5; Treg: regulatory T cell.
Declarations
Acknowledgments
During the preparation of this work, the authors used Google AI tools for copy-editing purposes to improve readability and correct minor grammar and formatting issues. After utilizing the tool, the authors reviewed and edited the content as necessary and took full responsibility for the final content of the publication.
Author contributions
SK: Methodology, Writing—review & editing. TA: Supervision, Writing—review & editing, Validation. MW: Conceptualization, Writing—original draft, Methodology, Investigation. All authors read and approved the submitted version.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Open Exploration maintains a neutral stance on jurisdictional claims in published institutional affiliations and maps. All opinions expressed in this article are the personal views of the author(s) and do not represent the stance of the editorial team or the publisher.
References
Makowski L, Chaib M, Rathmell JC. Immunometabolism: From basic mechanisms to translation.Immunol Rev. 2020;295:5–14. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Chavakis T. Immunometabolism: Where Immunology and Metabolism Meet.J Innate Immun. 2022;14:1–3. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Xu R, He X, Xu J, Yu G, Wu Y. Immunometabolism: signaling pathways, homeostasis, and therapeutic targets.MedComm (2020). 2024;5:e789. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Lee YS, Wollam J, Olefsky JM. An Integrated View of Immunometabolism.Cell. 2018;172:22–40. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Wei J, Raynor J, Nguyen TL, Chi H. Nutrient and Metabolic Sensing in T Cell Responses.Front Immunol. 2017;8:247. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Muri J, Kopf M. Redox regulation of immunometabolism.Nat Rev Immunol. 2021;21:363–81. [DOI] [PubMed]
Iyer A, Brown L, Whitehead JP, Prins JB, Fairlie DP. Nutrient and immune sensing are obligate pathways in metabolism, immunity, and disease.FASEB J. 2015;29:3612–25. [DOI] [PubMed]
Wang A, Luan HH, Medzhitov R. An evolutionary perspective on immunometabolism.Science. 2019;363:eaar3932. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Ayres JS. Immunometabolism of infections.Nat Rev Immunol. 2020;20:79–80. [DOI] [PubMed]
Lercher A, Baazim H, Bergthaler A. Systemic Immunometabolism: Challenges and Opportunities.Immunity. 2020;53:496–509. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Martinis E, Tonon S, Colamatteo A, La Cava A, Matarese G, Pucillo CEM. B cell immunometabolism in health and disease.Nat Immunol. 2025;26:366–77. [DOI] [PubMed]
Hotamisligil GS, Erbay E. Nutrient sensing and inflammation in metabolic diseases.Nat Rev Immunol. 2008;8:923–34. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Kelly B, Pearce EL. Amino Assets: How Amino Acids Support Immunity.Cell Metab. 2020;32:154–75. [DOI] [PubMed]
Tan JK, Macia L, Mackay CR. Dietary fiber and SCFAs in the regulation of mucosal immunity.J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2023;151:361–70. [DOI] [PubMed]
Mann ER, Lam YK, Uhlig HH. Short-chain fatty acids: linking diet, the microbiome and immunity.Nat Rev Immunol. 2024;24:577–95. [DOI] [PubMed]
Bolte LA, Vich Vila A, Imhann F, Collij V, Gacesa R, Peters V, et al. Long-term dietary patterns are associated with pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory features of the gut microbiome.Gut. 2021;70:1287–98. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Moszak M, Szulińska M, Bogdański P. You Are What You Eat—The Relationship between Diet, Microbiota, and Metabolic Disorders—A Review.Nutrients. 2020;12:1096. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Wang P, Song M, Eliassen AH, Wang M, Fung TT, Clinton SK, et al. Optimal dietary patterns for prevention of chronic disease.Nat Med. 2023;29:719–28. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Schulz C, Oluwagbemigun K, Nöthlings U. Advances in dietary pattern analysis in nutritional epidemiology.Eur J Nutr. 2021;60:4115–30. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Jayedi A, Soltani S, Abdolshahi A, Shab-Bidar S. Healthy and unhealthy dietary patterns and the risk of chronic disease: an umbrella review of meta-analyses of prospective cohort studies.Br J Nutr. 2020;124:1133–44. [DOI] [PubMed]
Zampelas A, Magriplis E. Dietary patterns and risk of cardiovascular diseases: a review of the evidence.Proc Nutr Soc. 2020;79:68–75. [DOI] [PubMed]
Hassani Zadeh S, Mansoori A, Hosseinzadeh M. Relationship between dietary patterns and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis.J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2021;36:1470–8. [DOI] [PubMed]
Jiang P, Zheng W, Sun X, Jiang G, Wu S, Xu Y, et al. Sulfated polysaccharides from Undaria pinnatifida improved high fat diet-induced metabolic syndrome, gut microbiota dysbiosis and inflammation in BALB/c mice.Int J Biol Macromol. 2021;167:1587–97. [DOI] [PubMed]
Castro-Barquero S, Ruiz-León AM, Sierra-Pérez M, Estruch R, Casas R. Dietary Strategies for Metabolic Syndrome: A Comprehensive Review.Nutrients. 2020;12:2983. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Iddir M, Brito A, Dingeo G, Fernandez Del Campo SS, Samouda H, La Frano MR, et al. Strengthening the Immune System and Reducing Inflammation and Oxidative Stress through Diet and Nutrition: Considerations during the COVID-19 Crisis.Nutrients. 2020;12:1562. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Venter C, Eyerich S, Sarin T, Klatt KC. Nutrition and the Immune System: A Complicated Tango.Nutrients. 2020;12:818. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Barrea L, Muscogiuri G, Frias-Toral E, Laudisio D, Pugliese G, Castellucci B, et al. Nutrition and immune system: from the Mediterranean diet to dietary supplementary through the microbiota.Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2021;61:3066–90. [DOI] [PubMed]
Cena H, Calder PC. Defining a Healthy Diet: Evidence for The Role of Contemporary Dietary Patterns in Health and Disease.Nutrients. 2020;12:334. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Munteanu C, Schwartz B. The relationship between nutrition and the immune system.Front Nutr. 2022;9:1082500. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Cao G, Tan M, Huang W, Zhang J, Yin Y, Li X, et al. Nutrient-sensing nanoprotoplast augments tumor accumulation and immune response with short-term starvation.Nano Today. 2023;49:101762. [DOI]
Hu C, Xuan Y, Zhang X, Liu Y, Yang S, Yang K. Immune cell metabolism and metabolic reprogramming.Mol Biol Rep. 2022;49:9783–95. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Aderinto N, Abdulbasit MO, Tangmi ADE, Okesanya JO, Mubarak JM. Unveiling the growing significance of metabolism in modulating immune cell function: exploring mechanisms and implications; a review.Ann Med Surg (Lond). 2023;85:5511–22. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Jamar G, Ribeiro DA, Pisani LP. High-fat or high-sugar diets as trigger inflammation in the microbiota-gut-brain axis.Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2021;61:836–54. [DOI] [PubMed]
Zhu X, Bi Z, Yang C, Guo Y, Yuan J, Li L, et al. Effects of different doses of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on gut microbiota and immunity.Food Nutr Res. 2021;65. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Namgaladze D, Brüne B. Rapid glycolytic activation accompanying innate immune responses: mechanisms and function.Front Immunol. 2023;14:1180488. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Kierans SJ, Taylor CT. Regulation of glycolysis by the hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF): implications for cellular physiology.J Physiol. 2021;599:23–37. [DOI] [PubMed]
Soto-Heredero G, Gómez de Las Heras MM, Gabandé-Rodríguez E, Oller J, Mittelbrunn M. Glycolysis—a key player in the inflammatory response.FEBS J. 2020;287:3350–69. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Xu K, Yin N, Peng M, Stamatiades EG, Shyu A, Li P, et al. Glycolysis fuels phosphoinositide 3-kinase signaling to bolster T cell immunity.Science. 2021;371:405–10. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Cao J, Liao S, Zeng F, Liao Q, Luo G, Zhou Y. Effects of altered glycolysis levels on CD8+ T cell activation and function.Cell Death Dis. 2023;14:407. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Martins CP, New LA, O’Connor EC, Previte DM, Cargill KR, Tse IL, et al. Glycolysis Inhibition Induces Functional and Metabolic Exhaustion of CD4+ T Cells in Type 1 Diabetes.Front Immunol. 2021;12:669456. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Yu Q, Wang Y, Dong L, He Y, Liu R, Yang Q, et al. Regulations of Glycolytic Activities on Macrophages Functions in Tumor and Infectious Inflammation.Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2020;10:287. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
O’Neill LAJ, Kishton RJ, Rathmell J. A guide to immunometabolism for immunologists.Nat Rev Immunol. 2016;16:553–65. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Xu Y, Chen Y, Zhang X, Ma J, Liu Y, Cui L, et al. Glycolysis in Innate Immune Cells Contributes to Autoimmunity.Front Immunol. 2022;13:920029. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Reinfeld BI, Rathmell WK, Kim TK, Rathmell JC. The therapeutic implications of immunosuppressive tumor aerobic glycolysis.Cell Mol Immunol. 2022;19:46–58. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Guo D, Tong Y, Jiang X, Meng Y, Jiang H, Du L, et al. Aerobic glycolysis promotes tumor immune evasion by hexokinase2-mediated phosphorylation of IκBα.Cell Metab. 2022;34:1312–24.e6. [DOI] [PubMed]
Reina-Campos M, Scharping NE, Goldrath AW. CD8+ T cell metabolism in infection and cancer.Nat Rev Immunol. 2021;21:718–38. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Vardhana SA, Hwee MA, Berisa M, Wells DK, Yost KE, King B, et al. Impaired mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation limits the self-renewal of T cells exposed to persistent antigen.Nat Immunol. 2020;21:1022–33. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Jiang S. Mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation is linked to T-cell exhaustion.Aging (Albany NY). 2020;12:16665–6. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Wculek SK, Heras-Murillo I, Mastrangelo A, Mañanes D, Galán M, Miguel V, et al. Oxidative phosphorylation selectively orchestrates tissue macrophage homeostasis.Immunity. 2023;56:516–30.e9. [DOI] [PubMed]
Takeshima Y, Iwasaki Y, Nakano M, Narushima Y, Ota M, Nagafuchi Y, et al. Immune cell multiomics analysis reveals contribution of oxidative phosphorylation to B-cell functions and organ damage of lupus.Ann Rheum Dis. 2022;81:845–53. [DOI] [PubMed]
Li R, Lei Y, Rezk A, Espinoza DA, Wang J, Feng H, et al. Oxidative phosphorylation regulates B cell effector cytokines and promotes inflammation in multiple sclerosis.Sci Immunol. 2024;9:eadk0865. [DOI] [PubMed]
Shim JS, Kim EJ, Lee LE, Kim JY, Cho Y, Kim H, et al. The oxidative phosphorylation inhibitor IM156 suppresses B-cell activation by regulating mitochondrial membrane potential and contributes to the mitigation of systemic lupus erythematosus.Kidney Int. 2023;103:343–56. [DOI] [PubMed]
Qiu X, Li Y, Zhang Z. Crosstalk between oxidative phosphorylation and immune escape in cancer: a new concept of therapeutic targets selection.Cell Oncol (Dordr). 2023;46:847–65. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Boreel DF, Span PN, Heskamp S, Adema GJ, Bussink J. Targeting Oxidative Phosphorylation to Increase the Efficacy of Radio- and Immune-Combination Therapy.Clin Cancer Res. 2021;27:2970–8. [DOI] [PubMed]
Liu S, Zhang H, Li Y, Zhang Y, Bian Y, Zeng Y, et al. S100A4 enhances protumor macrophage polarization by control of PPAR-γ-dependent induction of fatty acid oxidation.J Immunother Cancer. 2021;9:e002548. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Xu M, Wang X, Li Y, Geng X, Jia X, Zhang L, et al. Arachidonic Acid Metabolism Controls Macrophage Alternative Activation Through Regulating Oxidative Phosphorylation in PPARγ Dependent Manner.Front Immunol. 2021;12:618501. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Chandra P, He L, Zimmerman M, Yang G, Köster S, Ouimet M, et al. Inhibition of Fatty Acid Oxidation Promotes Macrophage Control of Mycobacterium tuberculosis.mBio. 2020;11:e01139–20. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Laval T, Chaumont L, Demangel C. Not too fat to fight: The emerging role of macrophage fatty acid metabolism in immunity to Mycobacterium tuberculosis.Immunol Rev. 2021;301:84–97. [DOI] [PubMed]
Liu PS, Chen YT, Li X, Hsueh PC, Tzeng SF, Chen H, et al. CD40 signal rewires fatty acid and glutamine metabolism for stimulating macrophage anti-tumorigenic functions.Nat Immunol. 2023;24:452–62. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Jiang N, Xie B, Xiao W, Fan M, Xu S, Duan Y, et al. Fatty acid oxidation fuels glioblastoma radioresistance with CD47-mediated immune evasion.Nat Commun. 2022;13:1511. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Kolliniati O, Ieronymaki E, Vergadi E, Tsatsanis C. Metabolic Regulation of Macrophage Activation.J Innate Immun. 2022;14:51–68. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Tomé D. Amino acid metabolism and signalling pathways: potential targets in the control of infection and immunity.Eur J Clin Nutr. 2021;75:1319–27. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Yang L, Chu Z, Liu M, Zou Q, Li J, Liu Q, et al. Amino acid metabolism in immune cells: essential regulators of the effector functions, and promising opportunities to enhance cancer immunotherapy.J Hematol Oncol. 2023;16:59. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Wang W, Zou W. Amino Acids and Their Transporters in T Cell Immunity and Cancer Therapy.Mol Cell. 2020;80:384–95. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Han C, Ge M, Ho PC, Zhang L. Fueling T-cell Antitumor Immunity: Amino Acid Metabolism Revisited.Cancer Immunol Res. 2021;9:1373–82. [DOI] [PubMed]
Chapman NM, Boothby MR, Chi H. Metabolic coordination of T cell quiescence and activation.Nat Rev Immunol. 2020;20:55–70. [DOI] [PubMed]
Ma S, Ming Y, Wu J, Cui G. Cellular metabolism regulates the differentiation and function of T-cell subsets.Cell Mol Immunol. 2024;21:419–35. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
McGettrick AF, O’Neill LAJ. The Role of HIF in Immunity and Inflammation.Cell Metab. 2020;32:524–36. [DOI] [PubMed]
Cui Y, Chen J, Zhang Z, Shi H, Sun W, Yi Q. The role of AMPK in macrophage metabolism, function and polarisation.J Transl Med. 2023;21:892. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Corrado M, Pearce EL. Targeting memory T cell metabolism to improve immunity.J Clin Invest. 2022;132:e148546. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Liu T, Wen Z, Shao L, Cui Y, Tang X, Miao H, et al. ATF4 knockdown in macrophage impairs glycolysis and mediates immune tolerance by targeting HK2 and HIF-1α ubiquitination in sepsis.Clin Immunol. 2023;254:109698. [DOI] [PubMed]
Wculek SK, Dunphy G, Heras-Murillo I, Mastrangelo A, Sancho D. Metabolism of tissue macrophages in homeostasis and pathology.Cell Mol Immunol. 2022;19:384–408. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Vassiliou E, Farias-Pereira R. Impact of Lipid Metabolism on Macrophage Polarization: Implications for Inflammation and Tumor Immunity.Int J Mol Sci. 2023;24:12032. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Guak H, Krawczyk CM. Implications of cellular metabolism for immune cell migration.Immunology. 2020;161:200–8. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Mafi S, Mansoori B, Taeb S, Sadeghi H, Abbasi R, Cho WC, et al. mTOR-Mediated Regulation of Immune Responses in Cancer and Tumor Microenvironment.Front Immunol. 2022;12:774103. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Ye L, Jiang Y, Zhang M. Crosstalk between glucose metabolism, lactate production and immune response modulation.Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 2022;68:81–92. [DOI] [PubMed]
Ma X, Nan F, Liang H, Shu P, Fan X, Song X, et al. Excessive intake of sugar: An accomplice of inflammation.Front Immunol. 2022;13:988481. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Hotamisligil GS. Inflammation, metaflammation and immunometabolic disorders.Nature. 2017;542:177–85. [DOI] [PubMed]
Grosso G, Laudisio D, Frias-Toral E, Barrea L, Muscogiuri G, Savastano S, et al. Anti-Inflammatory Nutrients and Obesity-Associated Metabolic-Inflammation: State of the Art and Future Direction.Nutrients. 2022;14:1137. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Charles-Messance H, Mitchelson KAJ, De Marco Castro E, Sheedy FJ, Roche HM. Regulating metabolic inflammation by nutritional modulation.J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2020;146:706–20. [DOI] [PubMed]
Faustman DL. Benefits of BCG-induced metabolic switch from oxidative phosphorylation to aerobic glycolysis in autoimmune and nervous system diseases.J Intern Med. 2020;288:641–50. [DOI] [PubMed]
Galicia-Garcia U, Benito-Vicente A, Jebari S, Larrea-Sebal A, Siddiqi H, Uribe KB, et al. Pathophysiology of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus.Int J Mol Sci. 2020;21:6275. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Li B, Leung JCK, Chan LYY, Yiu WH, Tang SCW. A global perspective on the crosstalk between saturated fatty acids and Toll-like receptor 4 in the etiology of inflammation and insulin resistance.Prog Lipid Res. 2020;77:101020. [DOI] [PubMed]
Seufert AL, Hickman JW, Traxler SK, Peterson RM, Waugh TA, Lashley SJ, et al. Enriched dietary saturated fatty acids induce trained immunity via ceramide production that enhances severity of endotoxemia and clearance of infection.Elife. 2022;11:e76744. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Kojta I, Chacińska M, Błachnio-Zabielska A. Obesity, Bioactive Lipids, and Adipose Tissue Inflammation in Insulin Resistance.Nutrients. 2020;12:1305. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Andersen CJ. Lipid Metabolism in Inflammation and Immune Function.Nutrients. 2022;14:1414. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Poggioli R, Hirani K, Jogani VG, Ricordi C. Modulation of inflammation and immunity by omega-3 fatty acids: a possible role for prevention and to halt disease progression in autoimmune, viral, and age-related disorders.Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 2023;27:7380–400. [DOI] [PubMed]
Videla LA, Valenzuela R, Del Campo A, Zúñiga-Hernández J. Omega-3 Lipid Mediators: Modulation of the M1/M2 Macrophage Phenotype and Its Protective Role in Chronic Liver Diseases.Int J Mol Sci. 2023;24:15528. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Bikle DD. Vitamin D Regulation of Immune Function.Curr Osteoporos Rep. 2022;20:186–93. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Martens PJ, Gysemans C, Verstuyf A, Mathieu AC. Vitamin D's Effect on Immune Function.Nutrients. 2020;12:1248. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Maywald M, Rink L. Zinc in Human Health and Infectious Diseases.Biomolecules. 2022;12:1748. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Wessels I, Fischer HJ, Rink L. Dietary and Physiological Effects of Zinc on the Immune System.Annu Rev Nutr. 2021;41:133–75. [DOI] [PubMed]
Shakoor H, Feehan J, Apostolopoulos V, Platat C, Al Dhaheri AS, Ali HI, et al. Immunomodulatory Effects of Dietary Polyphenols.Nutrients. 2021;13:728. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Meng T, Xiao D, Muhammed A, Deng J, Chen L, He J. Anti-Inflammatory Action and Mechanisms of Resveratrol.Molecules. 2021;26:229. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Clemente-Suárez VJ, Beltrán-Velasco AI, Redondo-Flórez L, Martín-Rodríguez A, Tornero-Aguilera JF. Global Impacts of Western Diet and Its Effects on Metabolism and Health: A Narrative Review.Nutrients. 2023;15:2749. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Tilg H, Zmora N, Adolph TE, Elinav E. The intestinal microbiota fuelling metabolic inflammation.Nat Rev Immunol. 2020;20:40–54. [DOI] [PubMed]
Itsiopoulos C, Mayr HL, Thomas CJ. The anti-inflammatory effects of a Mediterranean diet: a review.Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2022;25:415–22. [DOI] [PubMed]
Barber TM, Kabisch S, Pfeiffer AFH, Weickert MO. The Effects of the Mediterranean Diet on Health and Gut Microbiota.Nutrients. 2023;15:2150. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Marko DM, Conn MO, Schertzer JD. Intermittent fasting influences immunity and metabolism.Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2024;35:821–33. [DOI] [PubMed]
Gombart AF, Pierre A, Maggini S. A Review of Micronutrients and the Immune System-Working in Harmony to Reduce the Risk of Infection.Nutrients. 2020;12:236. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Charoenngam N, Holick MF. Immunologic Effects of Vitamin D on Human Health and Disease.Nutrients. 2020;12:2097. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Bishop EL, Ismailova A, Dimeloe S, Hewison M, White JH. Vitamin D and Immune Regulation: Antibacterial, Antiviral, Anti-Inflammatory.JBMR Plus. 2020;5:e10405. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Ismailova A, White JH. Vitamin D, infections and immunity.Rev Endocr Metab Disord. 2022;23:265–77. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Sîrbe C, Rednic S, Grama A, Pop TL. An Update on the Effects of Vitamin D on the Immune System and Autoimmune Diseases.Int J Mol Sci. 2022;23:9784. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Kim B, Lee WW. Regulatory Role of Zinc in Immune Cell Signaling.Mol Cells. 2021;44:335–41. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Chasapis CT, Ntoupa PA, Spiliopoulou CA, Stefanidou ME. Recent aspects of the effects of zinc on human health.Arch Toxicol. 2020;94:1443–60. [DOI] [PubMed]
Chen B, Yu P, Chan WN, Xie F, Zhang Y, Liang L, et al. Cellular zinc metabolism and zinc signaling: from biological functions to diseases and therapeutic targets.Signal Transduct Target Ther. 2024;9:6. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Monteith AJ, Skaar EP. The impact of metal availability on immune function during infection.Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2021;32:916–28. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Alesci A, Nicosia N, Fumia A, Giorgianni F, Santini A, Cicero N. Resveratrol and Immune Cells: A Link to Improve Human Health.Molecules. 2022;27:424. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Wang Q, Yang B, Wang N, Gu J. Tumor immunomodulatory effects of polyphenols.Front Immunol. 2022;13:1041138. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Wang S, Li Z, Ma Y, Liu Y, Lin CC, Li S, et al. Immunomodulatory Effects of Green Tea Polyphenols.Molecules. 2021;26:3755. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Ding S, Jiang H, Fang J, Liu G. Regulatory Effect of Resveratrol on Inflammation Induced by Lipopolysaccharides via Reprograming Intestinal Microbes and Ameliorating Serum Metabolism Profiles.Front Immunol. 2021;12:777159. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Malesza IJ, Malesza M, Walkowiak J, Mussin N, Walkowiak D, Aringazina R, et al. High-Fat, Western-Style Diet, Systemic Inflammation, and Gut Microbiota: A Narrative Review.Cells. 2021;10:3164. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Tran HQ, Bretin A, Adeshirlarijaney A, Yeoh BS, Vijay-Kumar M, Zou J, et al. “Western Diet”-Induced Adipose Inflammation Requires a Complex Gut Microbiota.Cell Mol Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2020;9:313–33. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Tsigalou C, Konstantinidis T, Paraschaki A, Stavropoulou E, Voidarou C, Bezirtzoglou E. Mediterranean Diet as a Tool to Combat Inflammation and Chronic Diseases. An Overview.Biomedicines. 2020;8:201. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Srivastava S, Pawar VA, Tyagi A, Sharma KP, Kumar V, Shukla SK. Immune Modulatory Effects of Ketogenic Diet in Different Disease Conditions.Immuno. 2022;3:1–15. [DOI]
Burcelin R. Gut microbiota and immune crosstalk in metabolic disease.Mol Metab. 2016;5:771–81. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Gao J, Xu K, Liu H, Liu G, Bai M, Peng C, et al. Impact of the Gut Microbiota on Intestinal Immunity Mediated by Tryptophan Metabolism.Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2018;8:13. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Kim CH. Control of lymphocyte functions by gut microbiota-derived short-chain fatty acids.Cell Mol Immunol. 2021;18:1161–71. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Kawano Y, Edwards M, Huang Y, Bilate AM, Araujo LP, Tanoue T, et al. Microbiota imbalance induced by dietary sugar disrupts immune-mediated protection from metabolic syndrome.Cell. 2022;185:3501–19.e20. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Greathouse KL, Wyatt M, Johnson AJ, Toy EP, Khan JM, Dunn K, et al. Diet-microbiome interactions in cancer treatment: Opportunities and challenges for precision nutrition in cancer.Neoplasia. 2022;29:100800. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Erny D, Dokalis N, Mezö C, Castoldi A, Mossad O, Staszewski O, et al. Microbiota-derived acetate enables the metabolic fitness of the brain innate immune system during health and disease.Cell Metab. 2021;33:2260–76.e7. [DOI] [PubMed]
Hou Y, Li J, Ying S. Tryptophan Metabolism and Gut Microbiota: A Novel Regulatory Axis Integrating the Microbiome, Immunity, and Cancer.Metabolites. 2023;13:1166. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Calder PC, Carr AC, Gombart AF, Eggersdorfer M. Optimal Nutritional Status for a Well-Functioning Immune System Is an Important Factor to Protect against Viral Infections.Nutrients. 2020;12:1181. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Lee AH, Dixit VD. Dietary Regulation of Immunity.Immunity. 2020;53:510–23. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Wang B, Zhang B, Zhou L, Li S, Li Z, Luo H. Multi-omics reveals diet-induced metabolic disorders and liver inflammation via microbiota-gut-liver axis.J Nutr Biochem. 2023;111:109183. [DOI] [PubMed]
Pabst O, Hornef MW, Schaap FG, Cerovic V, Clavel T, Bruns T. Gut-liver axis: barriers and functional circuits.Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2023;20:447–61. [DOI] [PubMed]
Integrative HMP (iHMP) Research Network Consortium. The Integrative Human Microbiome Project.Nature. 2019;569:641–8. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Yao Y, Cai X, Fei W, Ye Y, Zhao M, Zheng C. The role of short-chain fatty acids in immunity, inflammation and metabolism.Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2022;62:1–12. [DOI] [PubMed]
Liu XF, Shao JH, Liao YT, Wang LN, Jia Y, Dong PJ, et al. Regulation of short-chain fatty acids in the immune system.Front Immunol. 2023;14:1186892. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Porbahaie M, Hummel A, Saouadogo H, Coelho RML, Savelkoul HFJ, Teodorowicz M, et al. Short-chain fatty acids inhibit the activation of T lymphocytes and myeloid cells and induce innate immune tolerance.Benef Microbes. 2023;14:401–19. [DOI] [PubMed]
Takeuchi T, Nakanishi Y, Ohno H. Microbial Metabolites and Gut Immunology.Annu Rev Immunol. 2024;42:153–78. [DOI] [PubMed]
McCarville JL, Chen GY, Cuevas VD, Troha K, Ayres JS. Microbiota Metabolites in Health and Disease.Annu Rev Immunol. 2020;38:147–70. [DOI] [PubMed]
Wang N, Wang B, Maswikiti EP, Yu Y, Song K, Ma C, et al. AMPK—a key factor in crosstalk between tumor cell energy metabolism and immune microenvironment?Cell Death Discov. 2024;10:237. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Gluais-Dagorn P, Foretz M, Steinberg GR, Batchuluun B, Zawistowska-Deniziak A, Lambooij JM, et al. Direct AMPK Activation Corrects NASH in Rodents Through Metabolic Effects and Direct Action on Inflammation and Fibrogenesis.Hepatol Commun. 2022;6:101–19. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Keerthana CK, Rayginia TP, Shifana SC, Anto NP, Kalimuthu K, Isakov N, et al. The role of AMPK in cancer metabolism and its impact on the immunomodulation of the tumor microenvironment.Front Immunol. 2023;14:1114582. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Pan T, Sun S, Chen Y, Tian R, Chen E, Tan R, et al. Immune effects of PI3K/Akt/HIF-1α-regulated glycolysis in polymorphonuclear neutrophils during sepsis.Crit Care. 2022;26:29. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Yan J, Horng T. Lipid Metabolism in Regulation of Macrophage Functions.Trends Cell Biol. 2020;30:979–89. [DOI] [PubMed]
Wu HM, Ni XX, Xu QY, Wang Q, Li XY, Hua J. Regulation of lipid-induced macrophage polarization through modulating peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma activity affects hepatic lipid metabolism via a Toll-like receptor 4/NF-κB signaling pathway.J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2020;35:1998–2008. [DOI] [PubMed]
Li XY, Ji PX, Ni XX, Chen YX, Sheng L, Lian M, et al. Regulation of PPAR-γ activity in lipid-laden hepatocytes affects macrophage polarization and inflammation in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease.World J Hepatol. 2022;14:1365–81. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Yang Y, Liu Y, Wang Y, Chao Y, Zhang J, Jia Y, et al. Regulation of SIRT1 and Its Roles in Inflammation.Front Immunol. 2022;13:831168. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Wu YJ, Fang WJ, Pan S, Zhang SS, Li DF, Wang ZF, et al. Regulation of Sirt1 on energy metabolism and immune response in rheumatoid arthritis.Int Immunopharmacol. 2021;101:108175. [DOI] [PubMed]
Kim JK, Silwal P, Jo EK. Sirtuin 1 in Host Defense during Infection.Cells. 2022;11:2921. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Laurindo LF, Santos AROD, Carvalho ACA, Bechara MD, Guiguer EL, Goulart RA, et al. Phytochemicals and Regulation of NF-kB in Inflammatory Bowel Diseases: An Overview of In Vitro and In Vivo Effects.Metabolites. 2023;13:96. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Margină D, Ungurianu A, Purdel C, Tsoukalas D, Sarandi E, Thanasoula M, et al. Chronic Inflammation in the Context of Everyday Life: Dietary Changes as Mitigating Factors.Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020;17:4135. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Rakha A, Umar N, Rabail R, Butt MS, Kieliszek M, Hassoun A, et al. Anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic potential of dietary flavonoids: A review.Biomed Pharmacother. 2022;156:113945. [DOI]
Lynch SV, Pedersen O. The Human Intestinal Microbiome in Health and Disease.N Engl J Med. 2016;375:2369–79. [DOI] [PubMed]
Collins N, Belkaid Y. Control of immunity via nutritional interventions.Immunity. 2022;55:210–23. [DOI] [PubMed]
Koenen M, Hill MA, Cohen P, Sowers JR. Obesity, Adipose Tissue and Vascular Dysfunction.Circ Res. 2021;128:951–68. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Herrada AA, Olate-Briones A, Rojas A, Liu C, Escobedo N, Piesche M. Adipose tissue macrophages as a therapeutic target in obesity-associated diseases.Obes Rev. 2021;22:e13200. [DOI] [PubMed]
Wang YY, Wang YD, Qi XY, Liao ZZ, Mai YN, Xiao XH. Organokines and Exosomes: Integrators of Adipose Tissue Macrophage Polarization and Recruitment in Obesity.Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2022;13:839849. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Randall TD, Meza-Perez S. Immunity in adipose tissues: Cutting through the fat.Immunol Rev. 2024;324:4–10. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Ren Y, Zhao H, Yin C, Lan X, Wu L, Du X, et al. Adipokines, Hepatokines and Myokines: Focus on Their Role and Molecular Mechanisms in Adipose Tissue Inflammation.Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2022;13:873699. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Zatterale F, Longo M, Naderi J, Raciti GA, Desiderio A, Miele C, et al. Chronic Adipose Tissue Inflammation Linking Obesity to Insulin Resistance and Type 2 Diabetes.Front Physiol. 2020;10:1607. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Pillon NJ, Loos RJF, Marshall SM, Zierath JR. Metabolic consequences of obesity and type 2 diabetes: Balancing genes and environment for personalized care.Cell. 2021;184:1530–44. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Eizirik DL, Pasquali L, Cnop M. Pancreatic β-cells in type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus: different pathways to failure.Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2020;16:349–62. [DOI] [PubMed]
Berbudi A, Rahmadika N, Tjahjadi AI, Ruslami R. Type 2 Diabetes and its Impact on the Immune System.Curr Diabetes Rev. 2020;16:442–9. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Park SJ, Garcia Diaz J, Um E, Hahn YS. Major roles of kupffer cells and macrophages in NAFLD development.Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2023;14:1150118. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Diehl KL, Vorac J, Hofmann K, Meiser P, Unterweger I, Kuerschner L, et al. Kupffer Cells Sense Free Fatty Acids and Regulate Hepatic Lipid Metabolism in High-Fat Diet and Inflammation.Cells. 2020;9:2258. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Xu GX, Wei S, Yu C, Zhao SQ, Yang WJ, Feng YH, et al. Activation of Kupffer cells in NAFLD and NASH: mechanisms and therapeutic interventions.Front Cell Dev Biol. 2023;11:1199519. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Remmerie A, Martens L, Thoné T, Castoldi A, Seurinck R, Pavie B, et al. Osteopontin Expression Identifies a Subset of Recruited Macrophages Distinct from Kupffer Cells in the Fatty Liver.Immunity. 2020;53:641–57.e14. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Tabas I, Bornfeldt KE. Intracellular and Intercellular Aspects of Macrophage Immunometabolism in Atherosclerosis.Circ Res. 2020;126:1209–27. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Sukhorukov VN, Khotina VA, Chegodaev YS, Ivanova E, Sobenin IA, Orekhov AN. Lipid Metabolism in Macrophages: Focus on Atherosclerosis.Biomedicines. 2020;8:262. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Yang S, Yuan HQ, Hao YM, Ren Z, Qu SL, Liu LS, et al. Macrophage polarization in atherosclerosis.Clin Chim Acta. 2020;501:142–6. [DOI] [PubMed]
Dumont A, Lee M, Barouillet T, Murphy A, Yvan-Charvet L. Mitochondria orchestrate macrophage effector functions in atherosclerosis.Mol Aspects Med. 2021;77:100922. [DOI] [PubMed]
Barrett TJ. Macrophages in Atherosclerosis Regression.Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2020;40:20–33. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Dong X, Suo Y, Yu J, Yu F, Li F, Zheng J, et al. Biomimetic Nanoparticles Simultaneously Targeting Modulation of Lipid Metabolism and Phenotype of Macrophages for Programmed Atherosclerosis Management.ACS Nano. 2025;19:25628–44. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Russo S, Kwiatkowski M, Govorukhina N, Bischoff R, Melgert BN. Meta-Inflammation and Metabolic Reprogramming of Macrophages in Diabetes and Obesity: The Importance of Metabolites.Front Immunol. 2021;12:746151. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Xue S, Su Z, Liu D. Immunometabolism and immune response regulate macrophage function in atherosclerosis.Ageing Res Rev. 2023;90:101993. [DOI] [PubMed]
Eshghjoo S, Kim DM, Jayaraman A, Sun Y, Alaniz RC. Macrophage Polarization in Atherosclerosis.Genes (Basel). 2022;13:756. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Mavar M, Sorić T, Bagarić E, Sarić A, Matek Sarić M. The Power of Vitamin D: Is the Future in Precision Nutrition through Personalized Supplementation Plans?Nutrients. 2024;16:1176. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Sasson AN, Ingram RJM, Zhang Z, Taylor LM, Ananthakrishnan AN, Kaplan GG, et al. The role of precision nutrition in the modulation of microbial composition and function in people with inflammatory bowel disease.Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2021;6:754–69. [DOI] [PubMed]
Zeb F, Osaili T, Obaid RS, Naja F, Radwan H, Cheikh Ismail L, et al. Gut Microbiota and Time-Restricted Feeding/Eating: A Targeted Biomarker and Approach in Precision Nutrition.Nutrients. 2023;15:259. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Mazziotta C, Tognon M, Martini F, Torreggiani E, Rotondo JC. Probiotics Mechanism of Action on Immune Cells and Beneficial Effects on Human Health.Cells. 2023;12:184. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Kocsis T, Molnár B, Németh D, Hegyi P, Szakács Z, Bálint A, et al. Probiotics have beneficial metabolic effects in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials.Sci Rep. 2020;10:11787. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Wastyk HC, Perelman D, Topf M, Fragiadakis GK, Robinson JL, Sonnenburg JL, et al. Randomized controlled trial demonstrates response to a probiotic intervention for metabolic syndrome that may correspond to diet.Gut Microbes. 2023;15:2178794. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Bolte LA, Lee KA, Björk JR, Leeming ER, Campmans-Kuijpers MJE, de Haan JJ, et al. Association of a Mediterranean Diet With Outcomes for Patients Treated With Immune Checkpoint Blockade for Advanced Melanoma.JAMA Oncol. 2023;9:705–9. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Al-Shaer AE, Buddenbaum N, Shaikh SR. Polyunsaturated fatty acids, specialized pro-resolving mediators, and targeting inflammation resolution in the age of precision nutrition.Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids. 2021;1866:158936. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Borja-Magno AI, Furuzawa-Carballeda J, Guevara-Cruz M, Arias C, Granados J, Bourges H, et al. Supplementation with EPA and DHA omega-3 fatty acids improves peripheral immune cell mitochondrial dysfunction and inflammation in subjects with obesity.J Nutr Biochem. 2023;120:109415. [DOI] [PubMed]
Procaccini C, de Candia P, Russo C, De Rosa G, Lepore MT, Colamatteo A, et al. Caloric restriction for the immunometabolic control of human health.Cardiovasc Res. 2024;119:2787–800. [DOI] [PubMed]
Dronkers TMG, Ouwehand AC, Rijkers GT. Global analysis of clinical trials with probiotics.Heliyon. 2020;6:e04467. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Rodgers GP, Collins FS. Precision Nutrition-the Answer to “What to Eat to Stay Healthy”.JAMA. 2020;324:735–6. [DOI] [PubMed]
Ramos-Lopez O, Martinez JA, Milagro FI. Holistic Integration of Omics Tools for Precision Nutrition in Health and Disease.Nutrients. 2022;14:4074. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Gkouskou K, Vlastos I, Karkalousos P, Chaniotis D, Sanoudou D, Eliopoulos AG. The “Virtual Digital Twins” Concept in Precision Nutrition.Adv Nutr. 2020;11:1405–13. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Trouwborst I, Gijbels A, Jardon KM, Siebelink E, Hul GB, Wanders L, et al. Cardiometabolic health improvements upon dietary intervention are driven by tissue-specific insulin resistance phenotype: A precision nutrition trial.Cell Metab. 2023;35:71–83.e5. [DOI] [PubMed]
Jardon KM, Canfora EE, Goossens GH, Blaak EE. Dietary macronutrients and the gut microbiome: a precision nutrition approach to improve cardiometabolic health.Gut. 2022;71:1214–26. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Simopoulos AP, Serhan CN, Bazinet RP. The need for precision nutrition, genetic variation and resolution in Covid-19 patients.Mol Aspects Med. 2021;77:100943. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Campuzano S, Barderas R, Moreno-Casbas MT, Almeida Á, Pingarrón JM. Pursuing precision in medicine and nutrition: the rise of electrochemical biosensing at the molecular level.Anal Bioanal Chem. 2024;416:2151–72. [DOI]
Nieman DC. Multiomics Approach to Precision Sports Nutrition: Limits, Challenges, and Possibilities.Front Nutr. 2021;8:796360. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Chaudhary N, Kumar V, Sangwan P, Pant NC, Saxena A, Joshi S, et al. Personalized nutrition and-omics.Compr Foodomics. 2020;495. [DOI] [PMC]
Adams SH, Anthony JC, Carvajal R, Chae L, Khoo CSH, Latulippe ME, et al. Perspective: Guiding Principles for the Implementation of Personalized Nutrition Approaches That Benefit Health and Function.Adv Nutr. 2020;11:25–34. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Arifuzzaman M, Collins N, Guo CJ, Artis D. Nutritional regulation of microbiota-derived metabolites: Implications for immunity and inflammation.Immunity. 2024;57:14–27. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Gupta S, Nakabo S, Blanco LP, O’Neil LJ, Wigerblad G, Goel RR, et al. Sex differences in neutrophil biology modulate response to type I interferons and immunometabolism.Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2020;117:16481–91. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Escrivà-Font J, Cao T, Consiglio CR. Decoding sex differences in human immunity through systems immunology.Oxf Open Immunol. 2025;6:iqaf006. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Caldarelli M, Rio P, Marrone A, Giambra V, Gasbarrini A, Gambassi G, et al. Inflammaging: The Next Challenge-Exploring the Role of Gut Microbiota, Environmental Factors, and Sex Differences.Biomedicines. 2024;12:1716. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Rahimpour S, Clary BL, Nasoohi S, Berhanu YS, Brown CM. Immunometabolism In Brain Aging and Neurodegeneration: Bridging Metabolic Pathways and Immune Responses.Aging Dis. 2024;16:3361–80. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Fabozzi G, Verdone G, Allori M, Cimadomo D, Tatone C, Stuppia L, et al. Personalized Nutrition in the Management of Female Infertility: New Insights on Chronic Low-Grade Inflammation.Nutrients. 2022;14:1918. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Matos-Silva M, Lira FS, Antunes BM. Immunometabolic insights into women’s health across all ages.Maturitas. 2025;202:108719. [DOI] [PubMed]
Mitchelson KAJ, Ní Chathail MB, Roche HM. Systems biology approaches to inform precision nutrition.Proc Nutr Soc. 2023;82:208–18. [DOI] [PubMed]
Subramanian M, Wojtusciszyn A, Favre L, Boughorbel S, Shan J, Letaief KB, et al. Precision medicine in the era of artificial intelligence: implications in chronic disease management.J Transl Med. 2020;18:472. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Agrawal K, Goktas P, Kumar N, Leung MF. Artificial intelligence in personalized nutrition and food manufacturing: a comprehensive review of methods, applications, and future directions.Front Nutr. 2025;12:1636980. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Qi L. Nutrition for precision health: The time is now.Obesity (Silver Spring). 2022;30:1335–44. [DOI] [PubMed]
da Mota JCNL, Martínez-Urbistondo M, Alfredo Martínez J, Ferreira-Nicoletti C. Value of precision nutrition in the inflammatory control of systemic lupus erythematosus.Rev Chil Nutr. 2024;172–6. [DOI]
Kumar V. Ignoring Gender-Based Immunometabolic Reprograming, a Risky Business in Immune-Based Precision Medicine.Front Biosci (Landmark Ed). 2025;30:27118. [DOI] [PubMed]
