Immunometabolism impact of dietary components and patterns.
| Dietary component/Pattern | Key immune/Cellular targets | Immunometabolism effect | Resulting immune phenotype/Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|
| High glycemic carbs/Fructose | mTOR, HIF-1α, NLRP3 [80] | ↑ Glycolysis,↑ Oxidative Stress | Pro-inflammatory M1/Th1/Th17; β-cell dysfunction [85]. |
| Saturated fats (e.g., palmitate) | TLR4, NLRP3, ceramide synthesis [86, 87] | ↑ Inflammatory signaling,↓ OXPHOS | Pro-inflammatory ATMs, hepatic inflammation, and insulin resistance [88]. |
| Omega-3 PUFAs (EPA/DHA) | GPR120, PPARγ, NLRP3 [89, 90] | ↑ SPMs,↓ NLRP3 activation,↑ FAO | Anti-inflammatory M2/Treg polarization; resolved inflammation [91]. |
| Vitamin D | VDR [92] | ↑ Antimicrobial peptides,↑ Treg differentiation | Enhanced barrier defense, tolerogenic immune environment [93]. |
| Zinc | ZIP/ZnT transporters, NF-κB [94] | Antioxidant, inhibits NLRP3 | Proper lymphocyte development, controlled inflammation [95]. |
| Polyphenols (e.g., resveratrol) | AMPK, SIRT1, Nrf2, NF-κB [96] | ↑ OXPHOS/Mitophagy, ↑ Antioxidant defenses | Reduced oxidative stress, anti-inflammatory, enhanced resilience [97]. |
| Western diet | Gut microbiota, TLR4, mTOR [98] | Dysbiosis,↑ Endotoxemia,↑ Glycolysis | Systemic metaflammation: basis for metabolic diseases [99]. |
| Mediterranean diet | Gut microbiota, AMPK, PPARγ [100] | ↑ SCFA production, favorable n-6:n-3 ratio | Reduced CRP/IL-6, improved cardiometabolic health [101]. |
| Ketogenic diet/Intermittent fasting | AMPK, SIRTs, HDACs (via BHB) [102] | ↑ Ketolysis,↑ Autophagy,↑ OXPHOS | Reduced NLRP3 activity, enhanced memory T cell function. |
AMPK: AMP-activated protein kinase; ATMs: adipose tissue macrophages; CRP: C-reactive protein; DHA: docosahexaenoic acid; EPA: eicosapentaenoic acid; FAO: fatty acid oxidation; GPR: G protein-coupled receptor; HDACs: histone deacetylases; HIF: hypoxia-inducible factor; mTOR: mechanistic target of rapamycin; NF-κB: nuclear factor κB; NLRP3: NOD-like receptor family pyrin domain containing 3; Nrf2: nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2; OXPHOS: oxidative phosphorylation; PPARγ: peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma; PUFAs: polyunsaturated fatty acids; SCFAs: short-chain fatty acids; SIRT: sirtuin; SPMs: specialized pro-resolving mediators; TLR4: toll-like receptor 4; Treg: regulatory T cell; VDR: vitamin D receptor; ZIP/ZnT: zinc importer/zinc transporter proteins.
During the preparation of this work, the authors used Google AI tools for copy-editing purposes to improve readability and correct minor grammar and formatting issues. After utilizing the tool, the authors reviewed and edited the content as necessary and took full responsibility for the final content of the publication.
SK: Methodology, Writing—review & editing. TA: Supervision, Writing—review & editing, Validation. MW: Conceptualization, Writing—original draft, Methodology, Investigation. All authors read and approved the submitted version.
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
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