Exploration of Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases

Table 1. General characteristics of the studies included in the qualitative meta-synthesis

Study	Study design (country)	Population	Genotyping	Inference
Leprêtre et al. [20], 2004	Cohort (France)	454	CD36 gene (entire sequence)	No significant association was found between CD36 gene and T2DM (P > 0.1)
Corpeleijn et al. [21], 2006	Cohort (Netherlands)	151	CD36 gene SNP rs1527479 and 478 C/T substitution	CD36 gene SNP rs1527479 TT haplotype was significantly associated with T2DM (P = 0.035), fasting glucose concentration (P < 0.05) and insulin resistance (P < 0.05)
Dotson et al. [22], 2008	Case-control (USA)	503	70 SNPs in TAS1Rs and TAS2Rs gene subtypes	TAS2R3 gene SNP rs11763979 (P = 0.03), TAS2R7 gene SNPs rs2588350 (P = 0.0007) and rs619381 (P = 0.009), TAS2R9 gene SNP rs3741845 (P = 0.005), and TAS2R50 gene SNP rs6488334 (P = 0.04) were significantly associated with patients with T2DM
Banerjee et al. [23], 2010	Case-control (India)	400	Two SNPs (rs1527483 and rs1761667) in the CD36 gene	CD36 SNP (G>A) rs1761667 GA was significantly associated with patients with T2DM (P < 0.001)
Wang et al. [24], 2012	Case-control (China)	113	CD36 gene SNPs (rs1527483 and rs1049673)	CD36 SNP rs1049673 CG & GG haplotypes were significantly associated with impaired glucose tolerance (P = 0.023) and T2DM (P = 0.011) in patients with essential hypertension, respectively
Gautam et al. [25], 2015	Case-control (India)	100	Six CD36 SNPs (rs1984112, rs1761667, rs1527479, rs3211938, rs1527483, and rs3212018)	CD36 SNPs rs1761667 (G>A) and rs3211938 (T>G) showed significant association with T2DM (GAATTC1, P < 0.001)
Tabur et al. [26], 2015	Case-control (Turkey)	308	25 TRPM1–8 gene SNPs rs28441327, rs11070811, rs2241493, rs111649153, rs1618355, rs1328142, rs3760663, rs34364959, rs4929982, rs886277, rs34551253, rs3986599, rs3750425, rs62569677, rs55924090, rs1016062, rs2362294, rs2362295, rs10490018, rs2052029, rs6431648, rs10803666, rs12472151, rs2215173, and rs6740118	TRPM5 gene SNP rs4929982 A allele (P = 0.0019) and TRPM8 gene SNP rs12472151 C allele (P < 0.001) polymorphisms might be related to the individual susceptibility to metabolic syndrome (including T2DM)
Park et al. [27], 2016	Cohort (South Korea)	8,842	7 SNPs in TRPV1 gene such as SNPs rs161364, rs8065080, rs150908, rs222745, rs7217945, rs222741, and rs2737141	TRPV1 gene SNPs rs161364 C allele (P = 0.0487) and rs8065080 C allele (P = 0.0378) were significantly associated with the prevalence of T2DM in dominant genetic models
Zhang et al. [28], 2018	Case-control (China)	546	Four CD36 SNPs rs1194197, rs2151916, rs3211956, and rs7755	Overweight/obesity individuals carrying SNP variant alleles of rs3211956 (GG+GT, P = 0.024) and rs7755 (AA+AG, P = 0.007) were associated with increased risk of T2DM compared to normal weight individuals carrying wild-type homozygous alleles
Fujii et al. [29], 2019	Cross-sectional (Japan)	495	Two CD36 gene SNPs (rs1761667 and rs1527483)	CD36 gene SNP rs1761667 AA haplotype was associated with higher intake of total fat (P = 0.01) and monounsaturated fatty acids (P = 0.05) when compared to GG and GA haplotypes. In addition, the frequency of CD36 gene SNP rs1761667 GG haplotype was higher in T2DM
Mrag et al. [30], 2020	Cohort (Tunisia)	300	CA6 gene SNP rs2274327	The CA6 gene SNP rs2274327 T allele in its dominant model (TT+CT vs. CC, 67.7% vs. 32.3%) was increasingly associated with T2DM. Similarly, taste impairment in T2DM was significantly associated with CA6 gene SNP rs2274327 T allele in its dominant model (OR = 1.97 [95% CI = 1.21 to 3.23], P = 0.006)
Hatmal et al. [31], 2021	Case-control (Jordan)	350	CD36 gene rs1761667 (G>A) and rs1527483 (C>T) were genotyped	No significant association was observed between CD36 polymorphisms and patients with T2DM or dyslipidemia (P > 0.1)
Touré et al. [32], 2022	Cross-sectional (Senegal)	100	2 tag SNPs in CD36 (rs3211867 and rs1761667)	No significant difference was observed between controls and T2DM subjects (P = 0.9)
Franzago et al. [33], 2023	Cohort (Italy)	23	CD36 gene SNPs rs1984112 (A>G) and rs1761667 (G>A), BMAL1 gene SNP rs7950226 (G>A), and CLOCK gene SNPs rs1801260 (A>G), rs4864548 (A>G), and rs3736544 (G>A)	CD36 gene SNP rs1761667 (G>A) A allele in its dominant form (AA+GG genotype) was significantly associated with patients with T2DM (P = 0.001)
Lee and Shin [34], 2023	Cohort (Korea)	4,552	TAS2R4 SNP rs2233998	TAS2R4 SNP rs2233998 TT haplotype was significantly associated with the incidence of T2DM in women (HR [95% CI] = 1.48 [1.13–1.93], P = 0.0182)
Husami et al. [35], 2025	Case-control (India)	680	2,658 gene variants	TAS2R38 genetic variants were associated with an increased risk of T2DM (P < 0.05)

Return to article view

case: patients with T2DM as defined in the respective studies; control: normal healthy individuals as defined in the respective studies; CD36: cluster determinant 36; T2DM: type 2 diabetes mellitus; SNP: single nucleotide polymorphism; TAS1R: type 1 taste receptor gene family R; TRPM1: transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily M gene member 1; TRPV1: transient receptor potential vanilloid-1; CA6: carbonic anhydrase VI gene; OR: odds ratio; CI: confidence intervals; BMAL1: brain and muscle aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator-like protein-1; CLOCK: circadian locomotor output cycles kaput; HR: hazard ratio

Supplementary materials

The supplementary materials for this article are available at: https://www.explorationpub.com/uploads/Article/file/101439_sup_1.pdf.

Declarations

Author contributions

VS: Conceptualization, Visualization, Methodology, Investigation, Data curation, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. SK: Writing—review & editing. VH: Writing—review & editing.

Conflicts of interest

Part of the manuscript has been presented as a poster presentation in the International Diabetes Federation Congress 2025 and the preparation of this manuscript has not been influenced by the presentation or any other factors.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this manuscript will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation, to any qualified researcher.

Funding

Not applicable.

Copyright

Publisher’s note

Open Exploration maintains a neutral stance on jurisdictional claims in published institutional affiliations and maps. All opinions expressed in this article are the personal views of the author(s) and do not represent the stance of the editorial team or the publisher.

References

Khan MAB, Hashim MJ, King JK, Govender RD, Mustafa H, Al Kaabi J. Epidemiology of Type 2 Diabetes — Global Burden of Disease and Forecasted Trends. J Epidemiol Glob Health. 2020;10:107–11. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Schwingshackl L, Hoffmann G, Lampousi AM, Knüppel S, Iqbal K, Schwedhelm C, et al. Food groups and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies. Eur J Epidemiol. 2017;32:363–75. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Shivam V, Gillies CL, Goff LM, Zaccardi F, Khunti K. Taste perception genomics in gestational diabetes mellitus: A systematic review. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2024;26:1544–7. [DOI] [PubMed]

Shivam V. A meta-analysis on polymorphic trait of taste perception mediated by TAS2R38 genotype. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol. 2024;32:497–505. [DOI] [PubMed]

Murovets VO, Sozontov EA, Zachepilo TG. The Effect of the Taste Receptor Protein T1R3 on the Development of Islet Tissue of the Murine Pancreas. Dokl Biol Sci. 2019;484:1–4. [DOI] [PubMed]

Diószegi J, Llanaj E, Ádány R. Genetic Background of Taste Perception, Taste Preferences, and Its Nutritional Implications: A Systematic Review. Front Genet. 2019;10:1272. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Fujikura K. Multiple loss-of-function variants of taste receptors in modern humans. Sci Rep. 2015;5:12349. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Li C, Li Y, Sun Q, Abdurehim A, Xu J, Xie J, et al. Taste and its receptors in human physiology: A comprehensive look. Food Front. 2024;5:1512–33. [DOI]

Young RL, Chia B, Isaacs NJ, Ma J, Khoo J, Wu T, et al. Disordered control of intestinal sweet taste receptor expression and glucose absorption in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes. 2013;62:3532–41. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

10.

Hartman-Petrycka M, Knefel G, Lebiedowska A, Nowak M, Błońska-Fajfrowska B. Taste perception and food preferences in patients with diabetic foot ulcers before and after hyperbaric oxygen therapy. Nutr Diabetes. 2022;12:41. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

11.

Gondivkar SM, Indurkar A, Degwekar S, Bhowate R. Evaluation of gustatory function in patients with diabetes mellitus type 2. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2009;108:876–80. [DOI] [PubMed]

12.

Chamoun E, Liu AS, Duizer LM, Feng Z, Darlington G, Duncan AM, et al. Single nucleotide polymorphisms in sweet, fat, umami, salt, bitter and sour taste receptor genes are associated with gustatory function and taste preferences in young adults. Nutr Res. 2021;85:40–6. [DOI] [PubMed]

13.

Canivenc-Lavier MC, Kouidhi W, Boudalia S, Folia M. Taste and endocrine disruption. Ann Endocrinol (Paris). 2025;86:101768. [DOI] [PubMed]

14.

Shivam V. Diabetes Mellitus and Taste Receptors Expression: A Systematic Review [Internet]. [cited 2025 Jul 7]. Available from: https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO/view/CRD42022351880

15.

Ketterer C, Müssig K, Heni M, Dudziak K, Randrianarisoa E, Wagner R, et al. Genetic variation within the TRPM5 locus associates with prediabetic phenotypes in subjects at increased risk for type 2 diabetes. Metabolism. 2011;60:1325–33. [DOI] [PubMed]

16.

Bartáková V, Kuricová K, Zlámal F, Bělobrádková J, Kaňková K. Differences in food intake and genetic variability in taste receptors between Czech pregnant women with and without gestational diabetes mellitus. Eur J Nutr. 2018;57:513–21. [DOI] [PubMed]

17.

Yang Y, Luo BR, Hu M, Zhao DM, Jing WJ. Association of CD36 gene single nucleotide polymorphism with gestational diabetes mellitus in Chinese Han population. Clin Exp Obstet Gynecol. 2018;45:266–71. [DOI]

18.

Li X, Lai L, Su J, Chen S, Lin S, Wang B, et al. Novel association between a transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily M member 5 expression quantitative trait locus rs35197079 and decreased susceptibility of gestational diabetes mellitus in a Chinese population. J Diabetes Investig. 2021;12:2062–70. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

19.

Page MJ, McKenzie JE, Bossuyt PM, Boutron I, Hoffmann TC, Mulrow CD, et al. The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ. 2021;372:n71. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

20.

Leprêtre F, Linton KJ, Lacquemant C, Vatin V, Samson C, Dina C, et al. Genetic study of the CD36 gene in a French diabetic population. Diabetes Metab. 2004;30:459–63. [DOI] [PubMed]

21.

Corpeleijn E, van der Kallen CJ, Kruijshoop M, Magagnin MG, de Bruin TW, Feskens EJ, et al. Direct association of a promoter polymorphism in the CD36/FAT fatty acid transporter gene with Type 2 diabetes mellitus and insulin resistance. Diabet Med. 2006;23:907–11. [DOI] [PubMed]

22.

Dotson CD, Zhang L, Xu H, Shin YK, Vigues S, Ott SH, et al. Bitter taste receptors influence glucose homeostasis. PLoS One. 2008;3:e3974. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

23.

Banerjee M, Gautam S, Saxena M, Bid HK, Agrawal CG. Association of CD36 gene variants rs1761667 (G>A) and rs1527483 (C>T) with Type 2 diabetes in North Indian population. Int J Diabetes Mellitus. 2010;2:179–83. [DOI]

24.

Wang Y, Zhou XO, Zhang Y, Gao PJ, Zhu DL. Association of the CD36 gene with impaired glucose tolerance, impaired fasting glucose, type-2 diabetes, and lipid metabolism in essential hypertensive patients. Genet Mol Res. 2012;11:2163–70. [DOI] [PubMed]

25.

Gautam S, Agrawal CG, Banerjee M. CD36 gene variants in early prediction of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Genet Test Mol Biomarkers. 2015;19:144–9. [DOI] [PubMed]

26.

Tabur S, Oztuzcu S, Duzen IV, Eraydin A, Eroglu S, Ozkaya M, et al. Role of the transient receptor potential (TRP) channel gene expressions and TRP melastatin (TRPM) channel gene polymorphisms in obesity-related metabolic syndrome. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 2015;19:1388–97. [PubMed]

27.

Park S, Zhang X, Lee NR, Jin HS. TRPV1 Gene Polymorphisms Are Associated with Type 2 Diabetes by Their Interaction with Fat Consumption in the Korean Genome Epidemiology Study. J Nutrigenet Nutrigenomics. 2016;9:47–61. [DOI] [PubMed]

28.

Zhang D, Zhang R, Liu Y, Sun X, Yin Z, Li H, et al. CD36 gene variants is associated with type 2 diabetes mellitus through the interaction of obesity in rural Chinese adults. Gene. 2018;659:155–9. [DOI] [PubMed]

29.

Fujii R, Hishida A, Suzuki K, Imaeda N, Goto C, Hamajima N, et al. Cluster of differentiation 36 gene polymorphism (rs1761667) is associated with dietary MUFA intake and hypertension in a Japanese population. Br J Nutr. 2019;121:1215–22. [DOI] [PubMed]

30.

Mrag M, Hamdouni H, Gouiaa A, Omezzine A, Ben Amor F, Kassab A. Investigation of carbonic anhydrase 6 gene polymorphism rs2274327 in relation to the oral health status and salivary composition in type 2 diabetic patients. Acta Odontol Scand. 2020;78:560–4. [DOI] [PubMed]

31.

Hatmal MM, Alshaer W, Mahmoud IS, Al-Hatamleh MAI, Al-Ameer HJ, Abuyaman O, et al. Investigating the association of CD36 gene polymorphisms (rs1761667 and rs1527483) with T2DM and dyslipidemia: Statistical analysis, machine learning based prediction, and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2021;16:e0257857. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

32.

Touré M, Samb A, Sène M, Thiam S, Mané CAB, Sow AK, et al. Impact of the interaction between the polymorphisms and hypermethylation of the CD36 gene on a new biomarker of type 2 diabetes mellitus: circulating soluble CD36 (sCD36) in Senegalese females. BMC Med Genomics. 2022;15:186. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

33.

Franzago M, Borrelli P, Di Nicola M, Stuppia L, Vitacolonna E. Genetic Variants in CD36 Involved in Fat Taste Perception: Association with Anthropometric and Clinical Parameters in Overweight and Obese Subjects Affected by Type 2 Diabetes or Dysglycemia—A Pilot Study. Nutrients. 2023;15:4656. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

34.

Lee KW, Shin D. Interactions between Bitter Taste Receptor Gene Variants and Dietary Intake Are Associated with the Incidence of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in Middle-Aged and Older Korean Adults. Int J Mol Sci. 2023;24:2199. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

35.

Husami SF, Kaur T, Gupta L, Rastogi G, Singh L, Meena P, et al. Corporate genome screening India (CoGsI) identified genetic variants association with T2D in young Indian professionals. Sci Rep. 2025;15:506. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

36.

Ebba S, Abarintos RA, Kim DG, Tiyouh M, Stull JC, Movalia A, et al. The examination of fatty acid taste with edible strips. Physiol Behav. 2012;106:579–86. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

37.

Yoo M, Shin J, Kim J, Ryall KA, Lee K, Lee S, et al. DSigDB: drug signatures database for gene set analysis. Bioinformatics. 2015;31:3069–71. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

38.

Abrol R, Tan J, Hui H, Goddard WA III, Pandol SJ. Structural basis for bitter taste receptor activation and its potential role in targeting diabetes. Funct Foods Health Dis. 2015;5:117–25. [DOI]