Exploration of Cardiology

Table 1. Summary of included studies.

Author	Year	TP	FN	FP	TN	AI/ML model type	ECG type	Primary endpoint
Kwon et al. [18]	2021	1,320	388	1,844	8,403	Deep learning	12-lead, 6-lead, single-lead	HFpEF
Sengupta et al. [19]	2018	107	26	9	46	Classical ML	12-lead signal-processed	Abnormal myocardial relaxation
Kuznetsova et al. [20]	2022	30	1	5	214	Classical ML	Single-lead (smartphone)	LVDD
Kagiyama et al. [21]	2020	51	25	62	250	Classical ML	12-lead signal-processed	LVDD/Abnormal relaxation
Lee et al. [22]	2024	18,205	3,678	13,136	63,744	Deep learning	12-lead	Increased filling pressure
Sabovčik et al. [23]	2021	171	81	144	1,011	Classical ML	12-lead	LVDD
Unterhuber et al. [24]	2021	93	1	44	65	Deep learning	12-lead	HFpEF
Schlesinger et al. [25]	2025	836	393	848	2,543	Deep learning	Single-lead (wearable)	Elevated mPCWP
Gao et al. [26]	2025	43	17	16	41	Deep learning	12-lead	HFpEF risk (elevated LVEDP)

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ECG: electrocardiogram; HFpEF: heart failure with preserved ejection fraction; LVDD: left ventricular diastolic dysfunction; ML: machine learning; AI: artificial intelligence.

Supplementary materials

The supplementary materials for this article are available at: https://www.explorationpub.com/uploads/Article/file/101293_sup_1.pdf.

Declarations

Author contributions

Habib S: Conceptualization, Investigation, Formal analysis, Methodology, Validation, Visualization, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. Humna S: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. AR: Conceptualization, Supervision, Methodology, Project administration, Writing—review & editing. HNT: Supervision, Project administration. Mursala T: Supervision, Project administration, Writing—review & editing. Mahad T: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing—review & editing. Hooria S: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing—review & editing. All authors read and approved the submitted version.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

The primary data for this meta-analysis were sourced online from databases listed in the methods. Referenced articles are accessible on PubMed, Cochrane, CTG and Google Scholar.

Funding

Not applicable.

Copyright

Publisher’s note

Open Exploration maintains a neutral stance on jurisdictional claims in published institutional affiliations and maps. All opinions expressed in this article are the personal views of the author(s) and do not represent the stance of the editorial team or the publisher.

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