Exploration of Foods and Foodomics

Table 3. Analytical targets (markers/parameters) found in literature for potentially distinguishing organic seeds and the analytical techniques and instrumentation used for obtaining them.

Seed tests	Analytical techniques and instrumentation	Quality markers/Quality features	References
Physicochemical analysis/Physiological seed quality
Seed viability and vigour	Machine vision	Seed size, colour, shape, texture	Rahman & Cho, 2016 [44]
Seed germination	Multi and hyperspectral imaging	Seed mass	Teles et al., 2019 [43]
Seed variety	Soft X-ray imaging	Lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates content	Shrestha et al., 2016 [51]
Purity	Thermal imaging	Moisture percentage	Caramês et al., 2025 [50]
Tetrazolium tests	Electronic nose	Spatial and spectral information of seeds
Chemical composition	Moisture analyzer	Simple/complex odours associated with volatiles from seeds
Moisture content	Titration techniques	Number of germinated seeds
Proximal analysis	Physicochemical analysis	Physiological traits
Disease presence
Damage by insects
Isotopic and elemental analysis
Stable isotope ratios	Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry (IRMS)	¹⁵N/¹⁴N	Laursen et al., 2013 [57]
Macro-elements profiling	Inductively Coupled Plasma–Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS)	¹³C/¹²C	Westermann et al., 2011 [63]
Trace elements analysis	Inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES)	¹⁸O/¹⁶O	Laursen et al., 2014 [58]
Rare elements analysis	Neutron-activation analysis	Macro-elements profiling (Na, N, K, P, S)	Ferrari et al., 2008 [61]
		Trace-elements (Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn)	Fattobene et al., 2024 [62]
		Rare elements analysis (Br, Cs, Eu, K, Rb)	Mihailova et al., 2014 [59]
			Rossi et al., 2007 [60]
Spectroscopic methods
Seed variety	Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)	Metabolic Markers/fingerprinting (phytochemicals)	Terskikh & Kermode, 2011; Terskikh et al., 2005 [69, 96]
Seed origin	Fluorescence	¹H NMR analysis	Radulescu et al., 2021 [76]
Oil, proteins, and carbohydrates content	Raman	¹³C NMR analysis	Gordillo-Delgado et al., 2012 [77]
Moisture content	Non-chromatographic mass spectrometry	Polyaromatic hydrocarbons and heterocycles compounds	Borges Lopes et al., 2021 [77]
Physical and chemical seeds characteristics	MALDI-TOF-MS: Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization Time-Of-Flight Mass Spectrometry	Spatial and spectral information of seeds	Consonni et al., 2018 [70]
	DART-MS: Direct Analysis in Real Time Mass Spectrometry
	Infrared spectroscopy
	Near infrared (NIR)
	Mid infrared (MIR)
	Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR)
Chromatographic and omics analysis
Exploratory untargeted metabolome/lipidome/proteome analysis	LC-MS and LC-MS/MS	Metabolites/proteins/lipids fingerprint	Oliveira et al., 2024 [87]
Targeted metabolome/lipidome/proteome analysis	GC-MS and GC-MS/MS	Metabolic profiling (phytochemicals)	Röhlig & Engel, 2010 [91]
	Omics	Metabolites/proteins/lipids identification and markers (VOCs, phenolic compounds, vitamins)	Liang et al., 2023 [88]
	Metabolomics		Bonte et al., 2014 [88]
	Lipidomics		Varunjikar et al., 2023 [90]
	Proteomics

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Declarations

Author contributions

DAR: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing, Funding acquisition. FPA: Conceptualization, Writing—review & editing. RFB: Writing—review & editing. ABC: Validation, Writing—review & editing, Supervision, Funding acquisition. All authors read and approved the submitted version.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Funding

The authors would like to thank the Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, Mendoza Argentina (Grant SIIP UNCuyo 2022 06/A007-T1; Grant SIIP UNCuyo 2025 Investigadores Noveles 80020240200036UN; Grant Fortalecimiento en Cs y Técnica UNCuyo 2025 06/80020240400061UN), and the Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET Argentina) (Grant PIP 11220200101692CO). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

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