Summary of apigenin’s biological effects observed in vitro, in vivo, and clinical studies, highlighting key outcomes, mechanisms, and translational relevance.
| Methods | Typical experimental system/dose ranges | Main effects observed | Putative mechanisms | Strength |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| In vitro (cells, biochemical assays) [60] | Cancer /immune/neuronal/endothelial cell lines; typical concentrations ~1–100 µM (commonly 5–50 µM) |
| Modulation of signalling (PI3K/Akt, MAPK, NF-κB), upregulation of pro-apoptotic proteins, inhibition of kinases and MMPs, and antioxidant enzyme activation. | Strong, consistent mechanistic data across many cell types, but limited to controlled cell conditions (not directly predictive of human dosing). |
| In vivo (animal models) [61] | Rodent disease models; doses often ~1–200 mg/kg (oral or i.p.) depending on model and duration |
| Same pathways as in vitro plus effects on whole-organism pharmacology (reduced systemic cytokines, oxidative stress; improved organ histology). Often shows chemosensitization when combined with drugs. | Good preclinical efficacy and safety signals, but results vary by formulation, dose, and model—translation to humans uncertain. |
| Clinical/human studies [62] | Very limited controlled trials and PK studies; human trials mostly early-phase or pilot; clinicaltrials.gov lists PK/safety and small pilot studies |
| Human metabolism (glucuronidation/sulfation) strongly affects exposure; formulations and glycoside forms change absorption. | Insufficient clinical efficacy data. Safety in short studies appears acceptable, but robust efficacy and dosing regimens are not established—more human trials needed. |
The authors express their sincere gratitude to their respective institutions, including IFTM University, Moradabad; Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology (Pharmacy), Ghaziabad, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Delhi-NCR Campus; Moradabad Educational Trust, Group of Institutions; Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences, Chennai; and Chitkara University, Punjab, for providing the necessary academic support and research environment to carry out this work. The authors acknowledge the use of ChemDraw (PerkinElmer Informatics) for generating chemical structure illustrations.
AK: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing—review & editing, Supervision. HS: Methodology, Investigation. RV: Investigation, Data curation. SK: Methodology, Investigation. JA: Formal analysis, Data curation, Writing—original draft, Visualization. PK: Formal analysis, Writing—original draft. AKM: Resources, Writing—original draft, Visualization. SC: Validation, Resources, Writing—review & editing. HC: Conceptualization, Validation, Writing—review & editing, Supervision. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
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The authors received no specific funding for this work.
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