Exploration of Foods and Foodomics

Table 4. Acetic acid content and pH after fermentation under different experimental conditions based on the Box-Behnken design.

Treatment	Factors			Monitoring parameters
Treatment	Inoculum density (CFU/mL)	Fermentation time (day)	Temperature (°C)	Post-fermentation pH	Acetic acid content (g/L)
1	5.05 × 10⁶	10	30	2.53	14.35
2	5.05 × 10⁶	7	33.5	3.31	3.85
3	1.0 × 10⁵	10	33.5	3.18	9.50
4	1.0 × 10⁵	7	30	2.31	15.65
5	1.0 × 10⁷	10	33.5	3.60	2.65
6	5.05 × 10⁶	7	33.5	3.51	4.00
7	1.0 × 10⁷	4	33.5	3.79	1.80
8	1.0 × 10⁷	7	37	3.12	7.60
9	5.05 × 10⁶	10	37	3.54	2.65
10	5.05 × 10⁶	4	37	3.73	1.10
11	5.05 × 10⁶	4	30	3.72	1.90
12	5.05 × 10⁶	7	33.5	3.58	3.85
13	5.05 × 10⁶	7	33.5	3.61	1.30
14	1.0 × 10⁷	7	30	2.84	7.00
15	1.0 × 10⁵	4	33.5	3.67	1.30
16	5.05 × 10⁶	7	33.5	3.47	2.70
17	1.0 × 10⁵	7	37	3.27	2.75

Return to article view

Declarations

Author contributions

VTHL: Conceptualization, Investigation, Formal analysis, Writing—original draft. THTT: Investigation, Validation. NKH: Investigation, Formal analysis. AVTV: Investigation, Validation. KML: Investigation, Formal analysis. QTG: Formal analysis, Validation. CML: Methodology, Validation, Supervision. TNN: Conceptualization, Validation, Supervision. PXH: Conceptualization, Writing—review & editing, Supervision. All authors read and approved the submitted version.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval

The Vietnamese national law does not require ethical approval for sensory evaluation. There are no human ethics committees or formal documentation procedures available for sensory evaluation. The experimental protocol involving sensory evaluation was in accordance with Vietnamese standards and operational guidelines.

Consent to participate

Informed consent to participate in the study was obtained from all participants.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this manuscript will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation, to any qualified researcher.

Funding

The research work was funded by Can Tho University (project code: [TSV2024-212]). The funder had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Copyright

Publisher’s note

Open Exploration maintains a neutral stance on jurisdictional claims in published institutional affiliations and maps. All opinions expressed in this article are the personal views of the author(s) and do not represent the stance of the editorial team or the publisher.

References

Maldonado-Celis ME, Yahia EM, Bedoya R, Landázuri P, Loango N, Aguillón J, et al. Chemical composition of mango (Mangifera indica L.) fruit: Nutritional and phytochemical compounds. Front Plant Sci. 2019;10:1073. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Mitra S. Mango production in the world – present situation and future prospect. Acta Hortic. 2016;1111:287–96. [DOI]

Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (Viet Nam). Vietnam is the 13^th biggest mango producer in the world [Internet]. Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development; c2021 [cited 2026 Mar 17]. https://www.mard.gov.vn/en/Pages/vietnam-is-the-13th-biggest-mango-producer-in-the-world.aspx

Budak HN, Guzel-Seydim ZB. Antioxidant activity and phenolic content of wine vinegars produced by two different techniques. J Sci Food Agric. 2010;90:2021–6. [DOI] [PubMed]

Yang S, Li K, Lu J, Wu D. Optimization of fermentation conditions and analysis of the changes in flavor compounds for lemon vinegar. Food Biosci. 2024;62:105128. [DOI]

Adebayo-Oyetoro AO, Adenubi E, Ogundipe OO, Bankole BO, Adeyeye SAO. Production and quality evaluation of vinegar from mango. Cogent Food Agric. 2017;3:1278193. [DOI]

Bouatenin KMJ, Kouamé KA, Gueu-Kehi ME, Djéni NT, Djè KM. Organic production of vinegar from mango and papaya. Food Sci Nutr. 2020;9:190–6. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Le TTP, Hoang AV. Study on the effects of several factors on mango vinegar fermentation. Proc Natl Conf Biotechnol. 2020. Vietnamese.

Ouattara A, Somda MK, Ouattara CAT, Dabiré Y, Nikiéma M, Traoré AS, et al. Production of vinegar mango using Acetobacter tropicalis CRSBAN-BVA1 and CRSBAN-BVK2 isolated from Burkina Faso. Food Nutr Sci. 2023;14:26–37. [DOI]

10.

Distler T, Huemer K, Leitner V, Bischof RH, Groiss H, Guebitz GM. Production of bacterial cellulose by Komagataeibacter intermedius from spent sulfite liquor. Bioresour Technol Rep. 2023;24:101655. [DOI]

11.

Luzón-Quintana LM, Castro R, Durán-Guerrero E. Biotechnological processes in fruit vinegar production. Foods. 2021;10:945. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

12.

Le TM, Nguyen TH, Pham TT, Nguyen TH, Le TLC. Methods of analysis of fermentation industry. Hanoi (Vietnamese): Science and Technics Publishing House; 2009.

13.

Singleton VL, Orthofer R, Lamuela-Raventós RM. Analysis of total phenols and other oxidation substrates and antioxidants by means of Folin-Ciocalteu reagent. In: Methods in Enzymology. Elsevier; 1999. pp. 152–78. [DOI]

14.

Gonçalves C, Rodriguez-Jasso RM, Gomes N, Teixeira JA, Belo I. Adaptation of dinitrosalicylic acid method to microtiter plates. Anal Methods. 2010;2:2046–8. [DOI]

15.

Ye M, Ren L, Wu Y, Wang Y, Liu Y. Quality characteristics and antioxidant activity of hickory-black soybean yogurt. LWT - Food Sci Technol. 2013;51:314–8. [DOI]

16.

Vietnam Ministry of Science and Technology. Water-based beverages (TCVN 12828: 2019). Hanoi (Viet Nam): Vietnam Ministry of Science and Technology; 2019.

17.

Vietnam Ministry of Health. National technical regulation for soft drinks (QCVN 6-2: 2010/BYT). Hanoi (Viet Nam): Vietnam Ministry of Health; 2019.

18.

Hua S, Wang Y, Wang L, Zhou Q, Li Z, Liu P, et al. Regulatory mechanisms of acetic acid, ethanol and high temperature tolerances of acetic acid bacteria during vinegar production. Microb Cell Factories. 2024;23:324. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

19.

Nguyễn TMH, Nguyễn MT. Tương quan giữa hàm lượng acid acetic sinh ra và ethanol, đường, mật số vi khuẩn A. aceti trong sản xuất giấm vang chuối. Tạp chí khoa học Đại học Cần Thơ. 2014:76–83. Vietnamese.

20.

Islam T, Diba F, Miah R, Siddiqa A, Azmuda N, Nahar S, et al. Optimization of Acetic Acid Production Rate by Thermotolerant Acetobacter spp. Adv Microbiol. 2017;7:749–59. [DOI]

21.

Trần XH, Đào VT, Nguyễn TH. Nghiên cứu tạo loại nước uống lên men lactic từ xoài ba màu. Tạp chí Dinh dưỡng và Thực phẩm. 2020;16:141–50. Vietnamese.

22.

Thạnh NN, Châu LM, Hậu VTP, Nhi NTT, Long BHĐ, Phong HX. Nghiên cứu lên men rượu vang dưa lưới (Cucumis melo L.) sử dụng nấm men Saccharomyces cerevisiae BV818. TNU J Sci Technol. 2023;228:415–23. Vietnamese. [DOI]

23.

Baker M, Inniss W, Mayfield C, Wong P. Effect of pH on the growth and activity of heterotrophic sediment microorganisms. Chemosphere. 1982;11:973–83. [DOI]

24.

Praveen M, Brogi S. Microbial fermentation in food and beverage industries: Innovations, challenges, and opportunities. Foods. 2025;14:114. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

25.

Divyashree HN, Narayanaswamy B, Tejashwini NK. Standardization of pH for vinegar production. Pharma Innov J. 2022;11:195–6.

26.

Tran TN, Phong HX, Anh, BTT, Long BHD, Thanh NN, Dung NTP. High-temperature production of acerola vinegar using thermotolerant Acetobacter senegalensis A28. Vietnam J Sci Technol Eng. 2018;60:13–8. [DOI]

27.

Kang B, Shin E, Lee S, Lee D, Hur S, Shin K, et al. Optimization of the acetic acid fermentation condition of apple juice. Korean J Food Preserv. 2011;18:980–5. [DOI]

28.

Wood JM. Bacterial responses to osmotic challenges. J Gen Physiol. 2015;145:381–8. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

29.

Gullo M, Caggia C, De Vero L, Giudici P. Characterization of acetic acid bacteria in “traditional balsamic vinegar”. Int J Food Microbiol. 2006;106:209–12. [DOI] [PubMed]

30.

Anguluri K, La China S, Brugnoli M, De Vero L, Pulvirenti A, Cassanelli S, et al. Candidate acetic acid bacteria strains for levan production. Polymers. 2022;14:2000. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

31.

Carrau F, Medina K, Fariña L, Boido E, Dellacassa E. Effect of Saccharomyces cerevisiae inoculum size on wine fermentation aroma compounds and its relation with assimilable nitrogen content. Int J Food Microbiol. 2010;143:81–5. [DOI] [PubMed]

32.

Qiu X, Zhang Y, Hong H. Classification of acetic acid bacteria and their acid resistant mechanism. AMB Express. 2021;11:29. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

33.

Trcek J, Toyama H, Czuba J, Misiewicz A, Matsushita K. Correlation between acetic acid resistance and characteristics of PQQ-dependent ADH in acetic acid bacteria. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2006;70:366–73. [DOI] [PubMed]

34.

Wang B, Shao Y, Chen T, Chen W, Chen F. Global insights into acetic acid resistance mechanisms and genetic stability of Acetobacter pasteurianus strains by comparative genomics. Sci Rep. 2015;5:18330. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

35.

Mengesha Y, Tebeje A, Tilahun B. A Review on factors influencing the fermentation process of Teff (Eragrostis teff) and other cereal-based Ethiopian Injera. Int J Food Sci. 2022;2022:4419955. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

36.

Liu G, Zhu F, Zhao B, Zhao Y, Wang J, Sun M, et al. Optimization of acetic acid fermentation process of apple cider vinegar. Asian Agri Res. 2020;12:41–9. [DOI]

37.

Saha P, Banerjee S. Optimization of process parameters for vinegar production using banana fermentation. Int J Res Eng Technol. 2013;2:501–14. [DOI]

38.

Wang CY, Liu YW, Jia JQ, Sivakumar TR, Fan T, Gui ZZ. Optimization of fermentation process for preparation of mulberry fruit wine by response surface methodology. Int J Enol Vitic. 2017;4:143–51.

39.

Desvita H, Faisal M, Mahidin, Suhendrayatna. Optimization of wood vinegar from cacao pod shells by response surface methodology. Baghdad Sci J. 2025;22:8. [DOI]

40.

Bibi N, Ali S, Tabassum R. Statistical optimization of pectinase biosynthesis from orange peel by Bacillus licheniformis using submerged fermentation. Waste Biomass Valorization. 2016;7:467–81. [DOI]

41.

Hamilton DF, Ghert M, Simpson AH. Interpreting regression models in clinical outcome studies. Bone Jt Res. 2015;4:152–3. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

42.

Lohan V, Pawar K, Kumari A, Gehlot R. Optimization of fermentation factors for vinegar preparation from sugarcane Jaggery using response surface methodology. Asian J Dairy Food Res. 2024;43:441–7. [DOI]

43.

Liu D, Zhu Y, Beeftink R, Ooijkaas L, Rinzema A, Chen J, et al. Chinese vinegar and its solid-state fermentation process. Food Rev Int. 2004;20:407–24. [DOI]

44.

Ubeda C, Callejón R, Hidalgo C, Torija M, Troncoso A, Morales M. Employment of different processes for the production of strawberry vinegars: Effects on antioxidant activity, total phenols and monomeric anthocyanins. LWT - Food Sci Technol. 2013;52:139–45. [DOI]

45.

Leonés A, Durán-Guerrero E, Carbú M, Cantoral JM, Barroso CG, Castro R. Development of vinegar obtained from lemon juice: Optimization and chemical characterization of the process. LWT. 2019;100:314–21. [DOI]

46.

Mahmoud HT, Nabil HA, Shahein AA, Darwish WS, Mohamed ZA. Mango, the king of fruits, with fascinating pharmacological activities and medicinal uses. Open Vet J. 2025;15:3380–7. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]