Exploration of Foods and Foodomics

Table 2. Functional foods and nutraceuticals in metabolic diseases.

Bioactive compound	Typology/examples	Main mechanisms of action	Reference
Functional foods & nutraceuticals (general)	Polyphenols, omega-3 fatty acids, fibers, phytosterols, peptides	Regulation of insulin sensitivity, lipid metabolism, mitochondrial function and inflammation	[42]
Resveratrol	Grapes, red wine (stilbene)	Activation of AMPK and SIRT1; increased mitochondrial biogenesis; enhanced fatty acid oxidation; improved insulin sensitivity	[43]
Resveratrol	Experimental obesity models	Reduction of hepatic fat accumulation (~20–30% in animal models); decreased plasma glucose (~10–15%); attenuation of systemic inflammation	[44]
Resveratrol	Diet-induced obesity models	Improvement of metabolic and inflammatory parameters	[45]
Curcumin	Curcuma longa (turmeric polyphenol)	Inhibition of NF-κB; activation of Nrf2–ARE antioxidant pathway	[46]
Curcumin	Clinical supplementation studies	Reduction of fasting glucose, HbA1c and lipid peroxidation markers	[47]
Curcumin	Type 2 diabetes/metabolic syndrome patients	Improvement of glycemic and oxidative stress parameters	[48]
Green tea catechins (EGCG)	Green tea polyphenols	Inhibition of α-amylase and α-glucosidase; reduced carbohydrate absorption	[49]
Green tea catechins (EGCG)	Epigallocatechin gallate	Activation of AMPK; increased lipid oxidation; increased energy expenditure	[50]
Anthocyanins	Cyanidin-3-glucoside, delphinidin (berries: blueberry, blackcurrant)	Activation of AMPK; increased GLUT4 expression; improved insulin sensitivity; antioxidant activity; modulation of inflammatory pathways	[51]
Hydroxytyrosol	Olive oil phenolic compound	Potent antioxidant; reduction of LDL oxidation; improvement of endothelial function; anti-inflammatory effects; modulation of lipid metabolism	[52]
Omega-3 PUFAs	EPA and DHA (marine oils)	Regulation of lipid metabolism, inflammation and insulin sensitivity	[53]
Omega-3 PUFAs	Fish oil and microalgae	Incorporation into cell membranes; modulation of receptor and enzyme activity	[54]
Omega-3 PUFAs	EPA/DHA metabolites	Production of resolvins, protectins and maresins; active resolution of inflammation	[55]
Omega-3 PUFAs	Clinical supplementation studies	Reduction of plasma triglycerides; decreased hepatic steatosis; improved endothelial function	[56]
Omega-3 PUFAs	EPA and DHA	Activation of PPARα and PPARγ; improved fatty acid oxidation and lipid handling	[57]
Dietary fibers & prebiotics	β-glucans, pectins, inulin	Modulation of gut microbiota and production of SCFAs	[58]
Soluble fibers	Oats, fruits, chicory root	Slowed gastric emptying; improved satiety; reduced postprandial glucose	[59]
Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs)	Butyrate, propionate, acetate	Activation of GPR41/GPR43; HDAC inhibition; improved insulin sensitivity	[60]
Butyrate	Colonic fermentation product	Enhanced gut barrier; reduced endotoxin translocation; reduced systemic inflammation	[61]
Synbiotics	Microencapsulation of synbiotic formulations	Improve microbial viability during food processing and gastrointestinal transit	[62, 63]
Prebiotics	Inulin-type fructans	Increased Bifidobacterium and Akkermansia muciniphila abundance	[64]
Probiotics	Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus rhamnosus, Bifidobacterium breve	Modulation of microbiota; improved lipid metabolism; reduced inflammation	[65]
Probiotics	Clinical and mechanistic studies	Increased SCFAs; upregulation of GLP-1; reduced circulating endotoxins	[66]
Probiotics	Clinical intervention trials	Improvement of inflammatory and metabolic biomarkers	[67]
Probiotics	Hyperlipidemic patients	Reduction of total cholesterol and LDL; increased HDL	[68]
Synbiotics	Combined prebiotics and probiotics	Restoration of microbial balance; improved metabolic outcomes	[69]
Phytosterols & stanols	Plant sterols (β-sitosterol, campesterol, stigmasterol)	Competitive inhibition of intestinal cholesterol absorption	[70]
Phytosterols	Fortified functional foods	Reduction of LDL cholesterol by 10–20%	[71]
Phytosterols	Experimental and clinical studies	Anti-inflammatory effects; reduced macrophage cholesterol accumulation	[72]
Bioactive peptides	Milk, soy, fish and cereal-derived peptides	Antihypertensive, antioxidant and antidiabetic activities	[73]
Bioactive peptides	VPP and IPP	ACE inhibition; blood pressure reduction; improved endothelial function	[74]
Milk-derived peptides	Bovine casein peptides	Activation of PI3K–Akt; increased glucose uptake; enhanced insulin secretion	[75]

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Declarations

Author contributions

RPD: Conceptualization, Writing—original draft. RMP: Methodology, Data curation, Supervision. SY: Investigation, Writing—original draft. FP: Data curation, Validation. ADL: Supervision, Project administration. RC: Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing, Supervision. GP: Supervision, Project administration, Funding acquisition. All authors read and approved the submitted version.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Funding

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Copyright

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