Major dietary antioxidants affecting cardiovascular health, their mechanisms of action, and recommended daily intake levels.
| Antioxidant | Main dietary sources | Mechanism of action | Cardiovascular effects | Recommended daily intake level |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vitamin A | Liver, fish oil, egg yolk, and dairy products; carrots, sweet potatoes, spinach, kale, and red peppers [135] | Regulation of antioxidant defense systems and oxidative stress responses via retinoic acid [136] | Support of endothelial function, maintenance of vascular integrity, and reduction of cardiometabolic risk [43–45] | 700–900 µg RAE/day [135] |
| Vitamin C | Citrus fruits, kiwi, strawberries, red peppers, broccoli, and green leafy vegetables [137] | Neutralization of ROS and reduction of oxidative stress [49] | Support of endothelial function and reduction of cardiovascular disease risk [52–54] | 75–90 mg/day [137] |
| Vitamin E | Vegetable oils, hazelnuts, almonds, and green leafy vegetables [137] | Inhibition of lipid peroxidation and reduction of LDL oxidation [61, 62] | Slowing of atherosclerosis and reduction of platelet aggregation [62, 64, 65] | 15 mg/day [137] |
| Selenium | Cereals, meat, fish, seafood, dairy products, and nuts [137] | Selenoprotein synthesis, antioxidant enzyme activity, and ROS neutralization [67, 71] | Reduction of oxidative stress, regulation of inflammation, and decreased risk and mortality of cardiovascular diseases [67, 71, 72] | 55 µg/day [137] |
| Zinc | Meat, seafood, legumes, nuts, whole grains, and dairy products [135] | Antioxidant enzyme activity (SOD), reduction of ROS, and inhibition of NF-κB [81] | Reduction of oxidative stress and inflammation, and decreased risk of cardiovascular disease [81–84] | 8–11 mg/day [135] |
| Flavonoids | Fruits, vegetables, tea, cocoa, and red wine [88] | Neutralization of ROS; inhibition of NF-κB; increased NO production [88–90] | Improvement of endothelial function, vasodilation; reduction in cardiovascular disease risk [88, 89, 97–99] | - |
| Resveratrol | Grape skins, red wine, blueberries, and peanuts [103] | Neutralization of ROS, inhibition of LDL oxidation, and anti-inflammatory and antithrombotic effects [105, 107, 108] | Improvement of endothelial function [109] | - |
| Lycopene | Tomatoes, watermelon, and pink grapefruit [113] | Neutralization of ROS, inhibition of NF-κB, and activation of antioxidant enzymes [113, 115] | Slowing of atherosclerosis and improvement of cardiovascular disease risk factors [113, 116, 120] | - |
Note. The recommended daily intake levels are based on Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) reports. There are no established recommended daily intake levels for flavonoids, resveratrol, and lycopene. NF-κB: nuclear factor kappa B; NO: nitric oxide; ROS: reactive oxygen species; SOD: superoxide dismutase.
MSE: Conceptualization, Investigation, Visualization, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. FRÖ: Writing—original draft, Conceptualization. GD: Writing—review & editing, Supervision. All authors read and approved the submitted version.
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
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This study received no external funding.
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