Exploration of Foods and Foodomics

Table 2. Major foodborne pathogens: food vehicles, global frequency, and clinical significance.

Pathogen	Primary food vehicle(s)	Global frequency	Severe outcomes (CFR/HUS)	Key reference(s)
Salmonella spp.	Poultry, eggs, fresh produce, spices	Very high (~93.8 million cases/year globally)	~155,000 deaths/year	WHO [1]; Scallan et al. [3]
Campylobacter spp.	Poultry, raw milk, contaminated water	Highest in EU; ~96 million cases/year globally	Rare mortality; Guillain-Barré risk	EFSA [4]; Havelaar et al. [2]
Listeria monocytogenes	RTE meats, soft cheeses, smoked fish	Low incidence but highest CFR (~20–30%)	Perinatal, elderly: highest risk groups	Swaminathan and Gerner-Smidt [7]
Norovirus	Shellfish, fresh produce, ready-to-eat foods	Highest frequency: ~125 million cases/year	Low mortality; high transmission rate	Scallan et al. [3]
Staphylococcus aureus	Dairy, deli meats, bakery products	Common; frequently underreported	Self-limiting; rare severe cases	Todd et al. [35]
Clostridium perfringens	Cooked meat/poultry dishes, gravies	High; 2nd most common in US outbreaks	Low CFR; high morbidity burden	Scallan et al. [3]
Bacillus cereus	Rice, starchy foods, spices	Moderate-high; widespread in Asia	Low mortality; emetic/diarrheal syndromes	EFSA [4]
Unidentified agents	Multiple/unknown matrices	~38–40% of reported outbreaks globally	Unknown; likely underestimated burden	CDC [8]

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STEC: Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli.

Declarations

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to acknowledge the institutional support of the Indonesian Food and Drug Authority (BPOM) in facilitating this research. No external writing assistance was used. The authors are solely responsible for the content.

Author contributions

AS: Conceptualization, Methodology, Data curation, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing, Visualization. WY: Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. FUS: Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. All authors read and approved the submitted version.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

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Not applicable.

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