Exploration of Foods and Foodomics

Table 3. Technological approaches for structural optimization of gluten-free bread.

Technological approach	Mechanism of action in gluten-free systems	Effect on bread quality	Typical ingredients/processing tools	Key references
Hydrocolloid incorporation	Mimics gluten viscoelastic network through water binding and viscosity enhancement	Improved gas retention, loaf volume, and crumb softness	Xanthan gum, HPMC, guar gum, CMC	[112, 113]
Protein enrichment	Formation of protein-starch interactions improves dough cohesion	Enhanced structure and nutritional quality	Egg protein, dairy protein, legume protein isolates	[114]
Sourdough fermentation	Organic acid production modifies starch behavior and improves matrix formation	Better texture, flavor, and shelf stability	Lactic acid bacteria fermentation	[56]
Starch modification	Adjusts gelatinization and retrogradation properties	Improved crumb structure and softness	Pregelatinized or modified starches	[115]
Flaxseed + IR‑microwave processing	Flaxseed improves moisture retention, gas-cell stability, and dough rheology	Higher loaf volume, softer crumb, better color; quality preserved after frozen storage and IR-microwave baking	Flaxseed (0–5%) with gums; frozen (–20°C), thawed (+4°C), fermented, baked in an IR-microwave oven.	[116]
Novel processing technologies	Physical restructuring of dough during baking	Improved porosity and uniform crumb	Extrusion, high-pressure processing	[115]

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CMC: carboxymethylcellulose; HPMC: hydroxypropyl methylcellulose; IR: infrared.

Declarations

Author contributions

AOA: Conceptualization, Writing—original draft. DSA: Visualization, Resources, Writing—review & editing. PJA: Formal analysis, Writing—original draft. OEF: Resources, Writing—review & editing. VNE: Conceptualization, Supervision, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. All authors read and approved the final submitted manuscript.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

The author, Victor N. Enujiugha (vnenujiugha@futa.edu.ng), will make the data of this research available to any researcher.

Funding

No external funding was received for this study.

Copyright

Publisher’s note

Open Exploration maintains a neutral stance on jurisdictional claims in published institutional affiliations and maps. All opinions expressed in this article are the personal views of the author(s) and do not represent the stance of the editorial team or the publisher.

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