The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
Ethical approval
This study involved voluntary participation in minimal-risk sensory and consumer acceptance tests with adult volunteers. All participants were informed of the study objectives and procedures and provided written consent prior to participation, and no personal, medical, or sensitive data were collected. In accordance with the institutional research ethics policy and applicable national regulations, formal ethics committee approval was not required for this non-invasive food sensory research; an exemption from ethics review was documented. Where a human ethics committee or formal documentation process was unavailable, the study nonetheless adhered to recognized ethical principles, including no coercion to participate, full disclosure of requirements and any foreseeable risks, written or verbal consent, protection of privacy with no release of individual data without participants’ knowledge, and the right to withdraw at any time without penalty.
Consent to participate
Informed consent to participate in the study was obtained from all participants.
Consent to publication
Informed consent to publication was obtained from relevant participants.
Availability of data and materials
The raw data supporting the conclusions of this manuscript will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation, to any qualified researcher.
Funding
This research was funded by the Universiti Malaysia Sabah Research Grant (Grant No. GUG0633-2/2023 and DN22104). The funder had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Open Exploration maintains a neutral stance on jurisdictional claims in published institutional affiliations and maps. All opinions expressed in this article are the personal views of the author(s) and do not represent the stance of the editorial team or the publisher.
References
Rathna Priya TR, Nelson ARLE, Ravichandran K, Antony U. Nutritional and functional properties of coloured rice varieties of South India: A review.J Ethn Food. 2019;6:11. [DOI]
Wambugu PW, Ndjiondjop MN, Henry R. Genetics and Genomics of African Rice (Oryza glaberrima Steud) Domestication.Rice (N Y). 2021;14:6. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Juliano BO, Tuaño APP. Gross structure and composition of the rice grain. In Bao J, editor. Rice: Chemistry and technology. Duxford: Woodhead Publishing; 2019. pp. 31–53. [DOI]
Prom-u-thai C, Rerkasem B. Rice quality improvement. A review.Agron Sustain Dev. 2020;40:28. [DOI]
Ahuja SC, Ahuja U. Rice in social and cultural life of people. In: Sharma SD, editor. Rice: Origin, antiquity and history. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2010. pp. 39–79.
Ronie ME, Mamat H, Abdul Aziz AH, Zainol MK. Proximate Compositions, Texture, and Sensory Profiles of Gluten-Free Bario Rice Bread Supplemented with Potato Starch.Foods. 2023;12:1172. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Shakri ANA, Kasim KF, Rukunudin IB. Chemical compositions and physical properties of selected Malaysian rice: A review.IOP Conf Ser: Earth Environ Sci. 2021;765:012024. [DOI]
Dorairaj D, Govender NT. Rice and paddy industry in Malaysia: governance and policies, research trends, technology adoption and resilience.Front Sustain Food Syst. 2023;7. [DOI]
Mazzola AM, Zammarchi I, Valerii MC, Spisni E, Saracino IM, Lanzarotto F, et al. Gluten-Free Diet and Other Celiac Disease Therapies: Current Understanding and Emerging Strategies.Nutrients. 2024;16:1006. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Singla D, Malik T, Singh A, Thakur S, Kumar P. Advances in understanding wheat-related disorders: A comprehensive review on gluten-free products with emphasis on wheat allergy, celiac and non-celiac gluten sensitivity.Food Chem Adv. 2024;4:100627. [DOI]
Goh SX, Mamat H, Aziz AHA. Valorization of agriculture by-product: Development of gluten-free biscuit made from blends of okara and jackfruit seed flour.Waste Manag Bull. 2024;2:59–65. [DOI]
El-Sayed EM, Elsebaie EM, Hozifa SA, El-Farsy MFA, El-Mesiry DM, Meslamy SAE, et al. Preparation and quality assessment of innovative gluten-free biscuit enriched with galangal (Alpinia galanga Linn.) powder.Appl Food Res. 2025;5:100746. [DOI]
Souza P, Peterson J, Andeta AF, Bascom N, Karkle E. Characterization and functionality of fermented sorghum and enset flours in a gluten-free deposited biscuit.J Cereal Sci. 2025:112:104106. [DOI]
Allouch Tounsi W, Debbabi H, Hadj Yahia N, Zarroug YO, Sebii H, Doggui L, et al. Nutritionally Enriched Maize- and Rice-Based Gluten-Free Biscuits: Leveraging Local Legume Flours for Improved Quality.Foods. 2025;14:3050. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Yee LK, Ibrahim SN, Ronie ME, Aziz AHA, Kobun R, Pindi W, et al. Quality characteristics of cookies made with red rice flour composite flour.Akad Gida. 2024:22:253–61. [DOI]
Baptista E, Liberal Â, Cardoso RVC, Fernandes Â, Dias MI, Pires TC, et al. Chemical and bioactive properties of red rice with potential pharmaceutical use.Molecules. 2024;29:2265. [DOI]
Kangwan N, Kongkarnka S, Pintha K, Saenjum C, Suttajit M. Protective Effect of Red Rice Extract Rich in Proanthocyanidins in a Murine Colitis Model.Biomedicines. 2023;11:265. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Liu X, Li Q, Yin B, Yan H, Wang Y. Assessment of macro, trace and toxic element intake from rice: differences between cultivars, pigmented and non-pigmented rice.Sci Rep. 2024;14:10398. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Hsieh CF, Liu W, Whaley JK, Shi YC. Structure, properties, and potential applications of waxy tapioca starches – A review.Trends Food Sci Technol. 2019;83:225–34. [DOI]
Hasmadi M, Harlina L, Jau-Shya L, Mansoor AH, Jahurul MHA, Zainol MK. Physicochemical and functional properties of cassava flour grown in different locations in Sabah, Malaysia.Food Res. 2020:4:991–9. [DOI]
Ronie ME, Mamat H, Aziz AHA, Ridhwan NM, Kobun R, Pindi W, et al. The potential and current applications of tapioca (Manihot esculenta Crantz) flour and starch as functional ingredients in food products: A review.Int J Food. 2025;2:34–64. [DOI]
Mamat H, Ling YY, Aziz AHA, Wahab NA, Rosli RGM, Sarjadi MS, et al. Utilization of seaweed composite flour (Kappaphycus alvarezii) in the development of steamed bun.J Appl Phycol. 2023;35:1911–9. [DOI]
Ibrahim SN, Ronie ME, Aziz AHA, Kobun R, Pindi W, Yin FH, et al. Composite flour as an innovative food ingredient in bakery products: A review.Int J Food. 2025;2:11–24. [DOI]
Wang A, Zhu Y, Zou L, Zhao G, Wu J. Development of protein-enriched biscuit based on oat-milk byproduct fortified with chickpea flour.LWT. 2023;177:114594. [DOI]
Ali U, Kumari A, Sharma A, Yadav M, Kaur S, Chaudhary E, et al. Evaluation of anthocyanin-enriched wheat varieties (black, blue, purple) for enhanced antioxidant content and premium biscuit quality.J Cereal Sci. 2024;118:103957. [DOI]
Nguyen QC, Vo MAN, Ung-Pham T, Le VVM. Turning waste into wealth: Vietnamese consumer willingness-to-pay for upcycled biscuits.Food Qual Prefer. 2025;129:105534. [DOI]
Zhang T, Tian S, Xue X, Yang Z, Liu Z. Effects of soaked brown rice flour on physicochemical properties of dough and biscuit quality.J Cereal Sci. 2025;123:104197. [DOI]
Boukid F. Pigmented grains and their by-products in innovative cereal-based products.In: Singh A, Sharma S, Dar BN, Boukid F, editors, Pigmented grains. London: Academic Press; 2024. pp. 281–93. [DOI]
Ronie ME, Mamat H, Aziz AHA, Sarjadi MS, Mokhtar RAM, Putra NR. Rice bran as a potent ingredient: unveiling its potential for value-added applications.Food Sci Biotechnol. 2024;34:577–8. [DOI]
Bolarinwa IF, Lim PT, Muhammad K. Quality of gluten-free cookies from germinated brown rice flour.Food Res. 2019;3:199–207. [DOI]
Montes SS, Rodrigues LM, Cardoso RCV, Camilloto GP, Cruz RS. Tapioca and rice flour cookies: Technological, nutritional and sensory properties.Ciênc Agrotecnol. 2015;39:514–2. [DOI]
Heymann H, Ebeler SE. Overview of applicable sensory evaluation techniques.In: Heymann H, Ebeler SE, editors, Sensory and instrumental evaluation of alcoholic beverages. London: Academic Press; 2017. pp. 1–38. [DOI]
AOAC. Official methods of analysis international. 17th ed. Rockville: AOAC International; 2000.
AACC. Approved Methods of the american association of cereal chemists. 10th ed. St. Paul: AACC International; 2000.
Mir NA, Gul K, Riar CS. Technofunctional and nutritional characterization of gluten-free cakes prepared from water chestnut flours and hydrocolloids.J Food Process Preserv. 2015;39:978–84. [DOI]
Olusegun OO, Dickson I. Nutritional, functional and sensory properties of biscuit produced from wheat–sweet potato composite.J Food Technol Res. 2014;1:111–21. [DOI]
Widati AS, Mustakim M, Widyastuti ES, Evanuarini H, Amertaningtyas D, Apriliyani MW. The effect of the use of different types and levels of tapioca flour on the physical quality of rabbit meatballs.J Ilmu Teknol Has Ternak. 2022:17:27–33. [DOI]
Li H, Yang J, Gao M, Wang J, Sun B. Washing rice before cooking has no large effect on the texture of cooked rice.Food Chem. 2019;271:388–92. [DOI]
Barton A, Hayward L, Richardson CD, McSweeney MB. Use of different panellists (experienced, trained, consumers and experts) and the projective mapping task to evaluate white wine.Food Qual Prefer. 2020;83:103900. [DOI]
Yu M, Wan S, Song H, Zhang Y, Wang C, Wang H, et al. Sensory-Based Identification of Aroma-Active Compounds in Hotpot Seasoning before and after Boiling.Molecules. 2021;26:5727. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Cole L, Kramer PR. Seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling, and touching.In: Cole L, Kramer PR, editors, Human physiology, biochemistry and basic medicine. London: Academic Press; 2016. pp. 101–4. [DOI]
Huda S, Taira Y, Rahimah S, Nurhasanah S. The effect of modified (preheated) soybean concentrate powder on high protein biscuit.IOP Conf Ser: Earth Environ Sci. 2023;1230:012166. [DOI]
Xu J, Zhang Y, Wang W, Li Y. Advanced properties of gluten-free cookies, cakes, and crackers: A review.Trends Food Sci Technol. 2020;103:200–13. [DOI]
Dias-Faceto LS, Salvador A, Conti-Silva AC. Acoustic settings combination as a sensory crispness indicator of dry crispy food.J Texture Stud. 2020;51:232–41. [DOI] [PubMed]
van der Sman RGM, Renzetti S. Understanding functionality of sucrose in biscuits for reformulation purposes.Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2019;59:2225–39. [DOI] [PubMed]
San José FJ, Collado-Fernández M, López R. Sensory evaluation of biscuits enriched with artichoke fiber-rich powders (Cynara scolymus L.).Food Sci Nutr. 2017;6:160–7. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Yildiz E, Gocmen D. Use of almond flour and stevia in rice-based gluten-free cookie production.J Food Sci Technol. 2021;58:940–51. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Shareenie MA, Matkhir AA, Haque Akanda J, Mamat H, Abdul Hamid M. The effects of unripe saba banana composite flour on acceptance and physicochemical characteristics of biscuits.Sci Res J. 2021;18:55. [DOI]
Ng SH, Robert SD, Wan Ahmad WAN, Wan Ishak WR. Incorporation of dietary fibre-rich oyster mushroom (Pleurotus sajor-caju) powder improves postprandial glycaemic response by interfering with starch granule structure and starch digestibility of biscuit.Food Chem. 2017;227:358–68. [DOI]
Rahman T, Sulaiman NF, Turmala E, Andriansyah RCE, Luthfiyanti R, Triyono A. Shelflife prediction of biscuits prepared from modified suweg (Amorphophallus campanulatus B) flour using Arrhenius model.IOP Conf Ser: Earth Environ Sci. 2019;251:012035. [DOI]
Durojaiye AI, Abubakar LG, Nwachukwu NG, Mohammed A, Ibrahim AS. Production and quality of biscuits from composite flours.J Food Sci Eng. 2018;8:241–7. [DOI]
Meenakumari R, Ravichandran C, Vimalarani M. Nutritional, sensory, and antioxidant characteristics of composite multigrain flour biscuits blended with sweet potato flour.Int Food Res J. 2023;30:173–81. [DOI]
Helmyati S, Wigati M. The role of rice as a whole grain in the management of metabolic syndrome.In: Singh RB, Watanabe S, Isaza AA, editors, Functional foods and nutraceuticals in metabolic and non-communicable diseases. Academic Press: London; 2022. pp. 151–62. [DOI]
Bayata A. Review on nutritional value of cassava for use as a staple food.Sci J Anal Chem. 2019;7:83–91. [DOI]
Jan N, Naik HR, Gani G, Bashir O, Amin T, Wani SM, et al. Influence of replacement of wheat flour by rice flour on rheo-structural changes, in vitro starch digestibility, and consumer acceptability of low-gluten pretzels.Food Prod Process Nutr. 2022;4:9. [DOI]
Shewry P. What Is Gluten-Why Is It Special?Front Nutr. 2019;6:101. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Zang P, Gao Y, Chen P, Lv C, Zhao G. Recent Advances in the Study of Wheat Protein and Other Food Components Affecting the Gluten Network and the Properties of Noodles.Foods. 2022;11:3824. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Mamat H, Hill SE. Effect of fat types on the structural and textural properties of dough and semi-sweet biscuit.J Food Sci Technol. 2014;51:1998–2005. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Klunklin W, Savage G. Effect of substituting purple rice flour for wheat flour on physicochemical characteristics, in vitro digestibility, and sensory evaluation of biscuits.J Food Qual. 2018;2018:8052847. [DOI]
Klang JM, Tambo Tene S, Matueno Kamdem FE, Teboukeu Boungo G, Womeni HM. Optimization using response surface methodology (RSM) of the energy density of flour-based gruels of sweet cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) flour: Effect of the addition of two new sprouted rice varieties produced under optimal conditions (Nerica 3 and Nerica L56).NFS J. 2020;19:16–25. [DOI]
Iqbal H, Ali TM, Arif S, Akbar Q, Saeed M. Effects of red rice flour addition on the rheological, textural, sensory and bioactive properties of wheat flour‐based pan breads.Int J Food Sci Technol. 2023;58:473–81. [DOI]
Vasanthakumari P, Jaganmohan R. Process development and formulation of multi-cereal and legume cookies.J Food Process Preserv. 2018;42:e13824. [DOI]
Ronie ME, Aziz AHA, Mohd Noor NQI, Yahya F, Mamat H. Characterisation of Bario rice flour varieties: Nutritional compositions and physicochemical properties.Appl Sci. 2022;12:9064. [DOI]
Chung HJ, Cho A, Lim ST. Utilization of germinated and heat-moisture treated brown rices in sugar-snap cookies.LWT. 2014;57:260–6. [DOI]
Mancebo CM, Picón J, Gómez M. Effect of flour properties on the quality characteristics of gluten free sugar-snap cookies.LWT. 2015;64:264–9. [DOI]
Nandiyanto ABD, Ragadhita R, Ana A, Hammouti B. Effect of starch, lipid, and protein components in flour on the physical and mechanical properties of Indonesian biji ketapang cookies.Int J Technol. 2022;13:432–43. [DOI]
Zouari R, Besbes S, Ellouze-Chaabouni S, Ghribi-Aydi D. Cookies from composite wheat-sesame peels flours: dough quality and effect of Bacillus subtilis SPB1 biosurfactant addition.Food Chem. 2016;194:758–69. [DOI] [PubMed]
Dada MA, Bello FA, Omobulejo FO, Olukunle FE. Nutritional quality and physicochemical properties of biscuit from composite flour of wheat, African yam bean and tigernut.Heliyon. 2023;9:e22477. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Cheng YF, Bhat R. Functional, physicochemical and sensory properties of novel cookies produced by utilizing underutilized jering (Pithecellobium jiringa Jack.) legume flour.Food Biosci. 2016;14:54–61. [DOI]
Baranwal D, Sankhla A. Physical and functional properties of malted composite flour for biscuit production.J Pharmacogn Phytochem. 2019;8:959–65.
Chandra S, Singh S, Kumari D. Evaluation of functional properties of composite flours and sensorial attributes of composite flour biscuits.J Food Sci Technol. 2015;52:3681–8. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Moin A, Zaid M, Moin M, Giuffrè AM. Consumer acceptance and sensory properties of wheat–millet composite biscuits fortified with Moringa oleifera and Camellia sinensis leaves powder.Curr Res Nutr Food Sci. 2024;12:686–98. [DOI]
