Betacyanins and their antimicrobial properties.
| Source | Model | Dosage/Duration of treatment | Biological effects and mechanisms of action | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| A. dubiusH. polyrhizus | In vitro (S. aureus) | 0.313 mg/mL to 2.5 mg/mL per 24 h | Reduced biofilm by 30–50% | Yong et al. [200], 2019 |
| B. vulgaris | In vitro (S. aureus, S. typhimurium, C. fruendii, S. sciuri, B. cereus) | 4.09 ± 0.20 mg betanin equivalents/gram of beetroot pomace extract/24 h at 37°C | Inhibited S. typhimurium, C. fruendii, S. aureus, S. sciuri, B. cereus | Vulić et al. [201], 2013 |
| B. vulgaris | In vitro (L. monocytogenes)ATCC 19116 | Beetroot extract: 20 mg/mL (1 MIC) at 37°C for 3 h, 40 mg/mL (2 MIC) at 37°C for 1 h | L. monocytogenes (108 log CFU/mL) was completely inhibited by treatment with 20 mg/mL for 3 h and 40 mg/mL for 1 h. | Gong et al. [202], 2022 |
| In vitro (L. monocytogenes) in cooked pork | Beetroot extract: 20 mg/mL (1 MIC), 40 mg/mL (2 MIC), both stored 6 days | The counts of L. monocytogenes decreased during storage, compared to the control group. | ||
| B. vulgaris | In vivo (C. elegans) | 20 mg/mL/18 h at 37°C; 76 h | Complete inhibition of MRSA growth; killed MRSA to extend the life of C. elegans | Choo et al. [203], 2020 |
| H. polyrhizus and A. dubius | In vitro (Dengue virus type 2) | 125.8 µg/mL (H. polyrhizus) vs. 14.62 µg/mL (A. dubius) (IC50) 48 h at 37°C | Increased infection inhibition | Chang et al. [204], 2019 |
A. dubius: Amaranthus dubius; H. polyrhizus: Hylocereus polyrhizus; B. vulgaris: Beta vulgaris; L. monocytogenes: Listeria monocytogenes; S. aureus: Staphylococcus aureus.
The authors would like to thank Mr. James Wong Yung Khai and Mr. Luther Ku for their assistance in drawing some of the diagrams in this manuscript. English grammar was improved using the Grammarly application and proofread by Dr. Elvin M. Walemba.
ODJ: Supervision, Project administration, Conceptualization, Investigation, Visualization, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. WGS: Investigation, Visualization, Writing—original draft. APGdS: Conceptualization, Investigation, Visualization, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. SAT: Investigation, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing, Validation. CYB: Investigation, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing, Validation. RN: Investigation, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing, Validation. EMW: Investigation, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing, Validation. ATM: Conceptualization, Investigation, Visualization, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing, Validation. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.
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