Green extraction methods for betacyanin extraction.
| Methods | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ultrasound-assisted extraction | ||||||
| Source | Solvent | Temperature (°C) | Time duration (min); ultrasound frequency (kHz/W) | Solid:liquid ratio (g/mL) | Betacyanin content | References |
| Hylocereus polyrhizus (F.A.C.Weber) Britton & Rose | Methanol in water | 10–60 | 2–30; 200/24 | 0.1:10–0.3:10 | 0.84–1.31 mg/g dw | [73] |
| Hylocereus polyrhizus | n.d. | 30–70 | 2–32; n.d. | n.d. | 134.87–154.86 mg/L | [75] |
| Beta vulgaris L. | Water | 30–60 | 30–60; 25 | 25–75 mg/mL | 3.36–4.48 mg/g | [76] |
| Microwave-assisted extraction | ||||||
| Source | Solvent | Power (W) | Time; cycles (s) | Solid:liquid ratio (g/mL) | Betacyanin content | References |
| Beta vulgaris L. | Ethanol | 360–900 | 2–6 s; 140–420 s | 1:20 | 130 mg/L | [78] |
| Amaranthus tricolour | Water | 200–700 | 5–15 min; 0.5–1 s | 1:80 | 71.95 mg/g dw | [79] |
| Beta vulgaris L. | Water | 100–800 | 30–50 s; n.d. | 0.1–0.2 w/v | 115.89 mg/100 g fw | [80] |
| Supercritical fluid extraction | ||||||
| Source | Solvent | Temperature (°C); pressure (psi/MPa) | Time (min) | Solid:liquid ratio (g/mL) | Betacyanin content | References |
| Beta vulgaris L. | n.d. | 45–85; 10–60 and 200–500 | 5–10 | n.d. | 10–23% | [82] |
| Hylocereus polyrhizus | Ethanol in water | 50; 25 | 90 | 1:10 | 28.44–120.28 mg/100 mL | [83] |
| Hylocereus polyrhizus | Ethanol in water | 40–60; 20–30 | 90 | 1:10 | 25.49 mg/100 mL | [84] |
| Enzyme-assisted extraction | ||||||
| Source | Solvent | Enzyme (%) | Temperature (°C); time (min) | Solid:liquid ratio (g/mL) | Betacyanin content | References |
| Beta vulgaris ssp. | Acetate buffer | CL: 37, PG and PL: 28, and XL: 35 | 25–45; 20–300 | 1:15 | 6.03–12.15 mg/L/U | [85] |
| Hylocereus polyrhizus | Water | AA: 0.25–2.75 | 20–50; 5–30 | 1:10 | 0.21–0.30 mg/g | [86] |
| Beta vulgaris ssp. | Water | AN: 0.1 | 30–70; 30–180 | n.d. | 135.23–154.42 mg/L | [75] |
CL: cellulase; PG: polygalacturonase; PL: pectin-liasic; XL: xylanase; AA: Aspergillus aculeatus; AN: Aspergillus niger; n.d.: not described.
The authors would like to thank Mr. James Wong Yung Khai and Mr. Luther Ku for their assistance in drawing some of the diagrams in this manuscript. English grammar was improved using the Grammarly application and proofread by Dr. Elvin M. Walemba.
ODJ: Supervision, Project administration, Conceptualization, Investigation, Visualization, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. WGS: Investigation, Visualization, Writing—original draft. APGdS: Conceptualization, Investigation, Visualization, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. SAT: Investigation, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing, Validation. CYB: Investigation, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing, Validation. RN: Investigation, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing, Validation. EMW: Investigation, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing, Validation. ATM: Conceptualization, Investigation, Visualization, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing, Validation. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.
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