Exploration of Foods and Foodomics

Table 2. The role of electrolytes in the INFOGEST digestion model [41].

Electrolyte	Phase (s) used	Role
NaCl	Saliva, gastric, and intestinal	Preserves ionic strength, contributes to pH buffering and osmotic balance, and replicates the natural sodium levels in digestive juices.
KCl	All phases	Provides physiological potassium concentration; thus, important for maintaining osmotic pressure and enzyme activity.
KH₂PO₄	Salivary, intestinal	Acts as a phosphate buffer, stabilizing pH and providing phosphate ions for buffering capacity.
NaHCO₃	Saliva, intestinal	Primary buffering agent that neutralizes gastric acid in the intestinal phase and maintains physiological pH (7).
MgCl₂·6H₂O	All phases	Supplies magnesium ions, essential cofactors for many digestive enzymes (e.g., amylases, proteases, lipases).
(NH₄)₂CO₃	Salivary	Mimics ammonia content in saliva, contributing to pH buffering and enzymatic activation.
CaCl₂·2H₂O	All phases	Supplies calcium ions, which promote micelle formation in lipid digestion and stabilize enzyme structures (especially amylase and lipase).
ZnSO₄	Intestinal	As a cofactor for certain proteolytic enzymes, thus enhancing metalloprotease activity.
Bile salts	Intestinal	For emulsification of fats, solubilization of lipophilic compounds for absorption, and micelle formation.

Return to article view

Declarations

Acknowledgments

The authors thank the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology in Kumasi, Ghana, the Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Energy and Natural Resources, Sunyani, Ghana, and the Metallic Contaminants Laboratory of the Ghana Standards Authority, Accra, Ghana, for their collaborations, technical assistance, and provision of resources for a successful completion of the research. During the preparation of this work, the authors used FigureLabs for preparing the figures. After using the tool, authors reviewed and edited the content as needed and took full responsibility for the content of the publication.

Author contributions

AW: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Formal analysis, Data curation, Writing—original draft. FA: Resources, Writing—review & editing, Project administration, Supervision. EFB: Validation, Writing—review & editing, Investigation, Software, Visualization. JOK: Project administration, Writing—review & editing, Resources. FCMR: Methodology, Writing—review & editing, Investigation, Validation. All authors read and approved the submitted version.

Conflicts of interest

Evans Frimpong Boateng, who is the Young Editorial Board Member of Exploration of Foods and Foodomics, had no involvement in the decision-making or the review process of this manuscript. The other authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Funding

Not applicable.

Copyright

Publisher’s note

Open Exploration maintains a neutral stance on jurisdictional claims in published institutional affiliations and maps. All opinions expressed in this article are the personal views of the author(s) and do not represent the stance of the editorial team or the publisher.

References

Ceasar SA, Maharajan T. The role of millets in attaining United Nationʼs sustainable developmental goals. Plants People Planet. 2022;4:345–9. [DOI]

Babele PK, Kudapa H, Singh Y, Varshney RK, Kumar A. Mainstreaming orphan millets for advancing climate smart agriculture to secure nutrition and health. Front Plant Sci. 2022;13:902536. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Wuni A, Alemawor F, Mills-Robertson FC, Boateng EF, Owusu-Kwarteng J. Impact of Traditional Food Processing Techniques on Mineral Bioaccessibility in Ghanaian Fermented Millet-Based Koko and Zoomkoom. Foods. 2025;14:2126. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. International year of millets 2023 [Internet]. FAO; c2026 [cited 2026 Jan 5]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/millets-2023/en

Taylor JRN. Millet Pearl: Overview. In: Wrigley C, Corke H, Seetharaman K, Faubion J, editors. Encyclopedia of Food Grains (Second Edition). Oxford: Academic Press; 2016. pp. 190–8. [DOI]

Anitha S, Kane-Potaka J, Botha R, Givens DI, Sulaiman NLB, Upadhyay S, et al. Millets Can Have a Major Impact on Improving Iron Status, Hemoglobin Level, and in Reducing Iron Deficiency Anemia-A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Front Nutr. 2021;8:725529. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Adegbola RQ, Otitodun GO, Okparavero NF, Medinat J, Okunlade AF. Fact about pearl millet (Pennisetum Glaucum (L.): A review. Iconic Res Eng J. 2023;6:605–15.

Satankar M, Patil AK, Kautkar S, Kumar U. Pearl Millet: a Fundamental Review on Underutilized Source of Nutrition. Multilogic Sci. 2020;10:1081–4.

Rathore S, Singh K, Kumar V. Millet Grain Processing, Utilization and Its Role in Health Promotion: A Review. Int J Nutr Food Sci. 2016;5:318–29. [DOI]

10.

Kane-Potaka J, Anitha S, Tsusaka TW, Botha R, Budumuru M, Upadhyay S, et al. Assessing Millets and Sorghum Consumption Behavior in Urban India: A Large-Scale Survey. Front Sustain Food Syst. 2021;5:680777. [DOI]

11.

Anitha S, Botha R, Kane-Potaka J, Givens DI, Rajendran A, Tsusaka TW, et al. Can Millet Consumption Help Manage Hyperlipidemia and Obesity?: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Front Nutr. 2021;8:700778. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

12.

Malik S. Pearl millet-nutritional value and medicinal uses! Int J Adv Res Innovative Ideas Educ. 2015;1:414–8.

13.

Adebiyi JA, Obadina AO, Mulaba-Bafubiandi AF, Adebo OA, Kayitesi E. Effect of fermentation and malting on the microstructure and selected physicochemical properties of pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) flour and biscuit. J Cereal Sci. 2016;70:132–9. [DOI]

14.

Adebo OA, Chinma CE, Obadina AO, Soares AG, Panda SK, Gan RY. Chapter 1 - An insight into indigenous fermented foods for the tropics. In: the Authors, editors. Indigenous Fermented Foods for the Tropics. Academic Press. 2023. pp. 1–12. [DOI]

15.

Amadou I, Gbadamosi OS, Le GW. Millet-based Traditional Processed Foods and Beverages—A Review. Cereal Foods World. 2011;56:115–21. [DOI]

16.

Ranasalva N, Visvanathan R. Development of Bread from Fermented Pearl Millet Flour. J Food Process Technol. 2014;5:1000327. [DOI]

17.

Nour A, Sokrab A, Mohamed Ahmed I, Babiker E. Supplementation and Cooking of Pearl Millet: Changes in Anti-Nutrients, and Total Minerals Content and Extractability. Innovative Rom Food Biotechnol. 2014;11:9–22.

18.

Boncompagni E, Orozco-Arroyo G, Cominelli E, Gangashetty PI, Grando S, Zu TTK, et al. Antinutritional factors in pearl millet grains: Phytate and goitrogens content variability and molecular characterization of genes involved in their pathways. PLoS One. 2018;13:e0198394. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

19.

Sheethal HV, Baruah C, Subhash K, Ananthan R, Longvah T. Insights of Nutritional and Anti-nutritional Retention in Traditionally Processed Millets. Front Sustain Food Syst. 2022;5:735356. [DOI]

20.

Rani S, Singh R, Sehrawat R, Kaur BP, Upadhyay A. Pearl millet processing: a review. Nutr Food Sci. 2018;48:30–44. [DOI]

21.

Mawouma S, Condurache NN, Turturică M, Constantin OE, Croitoru C, Rapeanu G. Chemical Composition and Antioxidant Profile of Sorghum (Sorghumbicolor (L.) Moench) and Pearl Millet (Pennisetumglaucum (L.) R.Br.) Grains Cultivated in the Far-North Region of Cameroon. Foods. 2022;11:2026. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

22.

Serna-Saldivar SO, Espinosa-Ramírez J. Chapter 5 - Grain Structure and Grain Chemical Composition. In: Taylor JRN, Duodu KG, editors. Sorghum and Millets (Second Edition). AACC International Press; 2019. pp. 85–129. [DOI]

23.

Minnis-Ndimba R, Kruger J, Taylor JRN, Mtshali C, Pineda-Vargas CA. Micro-PIXE mapping of mineral distribution in mature grain of two pearl millet cultivars. Nucl Instrum Methods Phys Res B. 2015;363:177–82. [DOI]

24.

Vinoth A, Ravindhran R. Biofortification in Millets: A Sustainable Approach for Nutritional Security. Front Plant Sci. 2017;8:29. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

25.

Satyavathi CT, Ambawat S, Khandelwal V, Srivastava RK. Pearl Millet: A Climate-Resilient Nutricereal for Mitigating Hidden Hunger and Provide Nutritional Security. Front Plant Sci. 2021;12:659938. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

26.

Gaoh BSB, Gangashetty PI, Mohammed R, Ango IK, Dzidzienyo DK, Tongoona P, et al. Combining ability studies of grain Fe and Zn contents of pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum L.) in West Africa. Front Plant Sci. 2023;13:1027279. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

27.

Hassan Z, Sebola N, Mabelebele M. Evaluating the physical and chemical contents of millets obtained from South Africa and Zimbabwe. CYTA – J Food. 2020;18:662–9. [DOI]

28.

Kiprotich F, Kimurto P, Ombui P, Towett B, Jeptanui L, Henry O, et al. Multivariate analysis of nutritional diversity of selected macro and micro nutrients in pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) varieties. J Food Sci. 2015;9:103–12. [DOI]

29.

Adéoti K, Kouhoundé SHS, Noumavo PA, Baba-Moussa F, Toukourou F. Nutritional value and physicochemical composition of pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) produced in Benin. J Microbiol, Biotechnol Food Sci. 2017;7:92–6. [DOI]

30.

Kulthe AA, Thorat SS, Lande SB. Characterization of Pearl Millet Cultivars for Proximate Composition, Minerals and Anti-Nutritional Contents. Adv Life Sci. 2016;5:4672–5.

31.

Babiker E, Abdelseed B, Hassan H, Adiamo O. Effect of decortication methods on the chemical composition, antinutrients, Ca, P and Fe contents of two pearl millet cultivars during storage. World J Sci, Technol Sustainable Dev. 2018;15:278–86. [DOI]

32.

Suma PF, Urooj A. Influence of germination on bioaccessible iron and calcium in pearl millet (Pennisetum typhoideum). J Food Sci Technol. 2014;51:976–81. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

33.

Burton GW, Wallace AT, Rachie KO. Chemical Composition and Nutritive Value of Pearl Millet (Pennisetum typhoides (Burm.) Stapf and E. C. Hubbard) Grain. CSSA. 1972;12;187–8. [DOI]

34.

Owheruo JO, Ifesan BOT, Kolawole AO. Physicochemical properties of malted finger millet (Eleusine coracana) and pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum). Food Sci Nutr. 2018;7:476–82. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

35.

Abdalla AA, El Tinay AH, Mohamed BE, Abdalla AH. Proximate composition, starch, phytate and mineral contents of 10 pearl millet genotypes. Food Chem. 1998;63:243–6. [DOI]

36.

Sankara Rao DS, Deosthale YG. Mineral composition, ionisable iron and soluble zine in malted grains of pearl millet and ragi. Food Chem. 1983;11:217–23. [DOI]

37.

Krishnan R, Meera MS. Monitoring bioaccessibility of iron and zinc in pearl millet grain after sequential milling. J Food Sci Technol. 2022;59:784–95. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

38.

Hama F, Icard-Vernière C, Guyot J, Rochette I, Diawara B, Mouquet-Rivier C. Potential of non-GMO biofortified pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) for increasing iron and zinc content and their estimated bioavailability during abrasive decortication. Int J Food Sci Technol. 2012;47:1660–8. [DOI]

39.

Hama-Ba F, Mouquet-Rivier C, Diawara B, Weltzien E, Icard-Vernière C. Traditional African Dishes Prepared From Local Biofortified Varieties of Pearl Millet: Acceptability and Potential Contribution to Iron and Zinc Intakes of Burkinabe Young Children. Front Nutr. 2019;6:115. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

40.

Brodkorb A, Egger L, Alminger M, Alvito P, Assunção R, Ballance S, et al. INFOGEST static in vitro simulation of gastrointestinal food digestion. Nat Protoc. 2019;14:991–1014. [DOI] [PubMed]

41.

Minekus M, Alminger M, Alvito P, Ballance S, Bohn T, Bourlieu C, et al. A standardised static in vitro digestion method suitable for food - an international consensus. Food Funct. 2014;5:1113–24. [DOI] [PubMed]

42.

Endalew HW, Atlabachew M, Karavoltsos S, Sakellari A, Aslam MF, Allen L, et al. Effect of fermentation on nutrient composition, antinutrients, and mineral bioaccessibility of finger millet based Injera: A traditional Ethiopian food. Food Res Int. 2024;190:114635. [DOI] [PubMed]

43.

Muleya M, Young SD, Broadley MR, Joy EJM, Chopera P, Bailey EH. Bioaccessibility of iron in pearl millet flour contaminated with different soil types. Food Chem. 2023;402:134277. [DOI] [PubMed]

44.

Dos Santos TB, Chávez DWH, Mellinger CG, de Carvalho CWP. In vitro digestibility of carbohydrates and physicochemical properties of pearl millet and corn whole grain flour extrudates. J Food Process Eng. 2024;47:e14478. [DOI]

45.

Huey SL, Mehta NH, Konieczynski EM, Bhargava A, Friesen VM, Krisher JT, et al. Bioaccessibility and bioavailability of biofortified food and food products: Current evidence. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2024;64:4500–22. [DOI] [PubMed]

46.

Akter S, Addepalli R, Netzel M, Tinggi U, Fletcher M, Sultanbawa Y, et al. In vitro Bioaccessibility and Intestinal Absorption of Selected Bioactive Compounds in Terminalia ferdinandiana. Front Nutr. 2022;8:818195. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

47.

Rein MJ, Renouf M, Cruz-Hernandez C, Actis-Goretta L, Thakkar SK, da Silva Pinto M. Bioavailability of bioactive food compounds: a challenging journey to bioefficacy. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2013;75:588–602. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

48.

Gabaza M. Iron and zinc bioaccessibility of fermented cereals: lessons drawn from Zimbabwean traditional porridges [dissertation]. Belgium: Ghent University; 2018.

49.

Rodrigues DB, Marques MC, Hacke A, Filho PSL, Cazarin CBB, Mariutti LRB. Trust your gut: Bioavailability and bioaccessibility of dietary compounds. Curr Res Food Sci. 2022;5:228–33. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

50.

Raes K, Knockaert D, Struijs K, Van Camp J. Role of processing on bioaccessibility of minerals: Influence of localization of minerals and anti-nutritional factors in the plant. Trends Food Sci Technol. 2014;37:32–41.

51.

Gibson RS, Bailey KB, Gibbs M, Ferguson EL. A review of phytate, iron, zinc, and calcium concentrations in plant-based complementary foods used in low-income countries and implications for bioavailability. Food Nutr Bull. 2010;31:S134–46. [DOI] [PubMed]

52.

Savita PD, Yallappa M, Nivetha N, Suvarna VC. Phytate solubilizing microorganisms and enzyme phytase to combat nutritional problems in cereal-based foods. J Bacteriol Mycol Open Access. 2017;4:86–9. [DOI]

53.

Khan MK, Karnpanit W, Nasar-Abbas SM, Huma Z, Jayasena V. Phytochemical composition and bioactivities of lupin: a review. Int J Food Sci Technol. 2015;50:2004–12. [DOI]

54.

Dilworth L, Stennett D, Omoruyi F. Cellular and Molecular Activities of IP6 in Disease Prevention and Therapy. Biomolecules. 2023;13:972. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

55.

Nissar J, Ahad T, Naik HR, Hussain SZ. A review phytic acid: As antinutrient or nutraceutical. J Pharmacogn Phytochem. 2017;6:1554–60.

56.

Akbar N. Nutrients Anti-Nutrients Interaction in Millets and its Effect on Malnutrition. Acta Sci Nutr Health. 2022;6:43–52. [DOI]

57.

Goudar G, Manne M, Sathisha GJ, Sharma P, Reddy Mokalla T, Kumar SB, et al. Phenolic, nutritional and molecular interaction study among different millet varieties. Food Chem Adv. 2023;2:100150. [DOI]

58.

Marolt G, Kolar M. Analytical Methods for Determination of Phytic Acid and Other Inositol Phosphates: A Review. Molecules. 2020;26:174. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

59.

Sharma N. Role of phytases from lactic acid bacterial species in level upgradation of bioavailable micronutrients in food applications. In: Montet D, Ray RC, De Carvalho Azevedo VA, Paramithiotis S, editors. Lactic Acid Bacteria as Cell Factories. Woodhead Publishing; 2023. pp. 219–37. [DOI]

60.

Feizollahi E, Mirmahdi RS, Zoghi A, Zijlstra RT, Roopesh MS, Vasanthan T. Review of the beneficial and anti-nutritional qualities of phytic acid, and procedures for removing it from food products. Food Res Int. 2021;143:110284. [DOI] [PubMed]

61.

Dahdouh S, Grande F, Espinosa SN, Vincent A, Gibson R, Bailey K, et al. Development of the FAO/INFOODS/IZINCG Global Food Composition Database for Phytate. J Food Compost Anal. 2019;78:42–8. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

62.

Humer E, Schwarz C, Schedle K. Phytate in pig and poultry nutrition. J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr (Berl). 2015;99:605–25. [DOI] [PubMed]

63.

Gupta RK, Gangoliya SS, Singh NK. Reduction of phytic acid and enhancement of bioavailable micronutrients in food grains. J Food Sci Technol. 2015;52:676–84. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

64.

Rollán GC, Gerez CL, LeBlanc JG. Lactic Fermentation as a Strategy to Improve the Nutritional and Functional Values of Pseudocereals. Front Nutr. 2019;6:98. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

65.

Tamim NM, Angel R, Christman M. Influence of dietary calcium and phytase on phytate phosphorus hydrolysis in broiler chickens. Poult Sci. 2004;83:1358–67. [DOI] [PubMed]

66.

Zhang YY, Stockmann R, Ng K, Ajlouni S. Revisiting phytate-element interactions: implications for iron, zinc and calcium bioavailability, with emphasis on legumes. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2022;62:1696–712. [DOI] [PubMed]

67.

Sandberg AS, Brune M, Carlsson NG, Hallberg L, Skoglund E, Rossander-Hulthén L. Inositol phosphates with different numbers of phosphate groups influence iron absorption in humans. Am J Clin Nutr. 1999;70:240–6. [DOI] [PubMed]

68.

Dendougui F, Schwedt G. In vitro analysis of binding capacities of calcium to phytic acid in different food samples. Eur Food Res Technol. 2004;219:409–15. [DOI]

69.

Rousseau S, Kyomugasho C, Celus M, Hendrickx MEG, Grauwet T. Barriers impairing mineral bioaccessibility and bioavailability in plant-based foods and the perspectives for food processing. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2020;60:826–43. [DOI] [PubMed]

70.

Himanshu K, Chauhan M, Sonawane SK, Arya SS. Nutritional and Nutraceutical Properties of Millets: A Review. Clin J Nutr Diet. 2018;1:1–10.

71.

Tomar M, Bhardwaj R, Kumar M, Singh SP, Krishnan V, Kansal R, et al. Development of NIR spectroscopy based prediction models for nutritional profiling of pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum (L.)) R.Br: A chemometrics approach. LWT. 2021;149:111813. [DOI]

72.

Compaore-Sereme D, Tapsoba FW, Zoénabo D, Compaoré CS, Dicko MH, Sawadogo-Lingani H. A review on dietary fiber: definitions, classification, importance and advantages for human diet and guidelines to promote consumption. Int J Biol Chem Sci. 2022;16:2916–29. [DOI]

73.

Hemmige Natesh N, Abbey L, Asiedu SK. An overview of nutritional and nntinutritional factors in green leafy vegetables. Horticult Int J. 2017;1:58–65. [DOI]

74.

Bora P. Nutritional Properties of Different Millet Types and their Selected Products [dissertation]. Guelph: University of Guelph; 2013.

75.

Jha N, Krishnan R, Meera MS. Effect of different soaking conditions on inhibitory factors and bioaccessibility of iron and zinc in pearl millet. J Cereal Sci. 2015;66:46–52. [DOI]

76.

Krishnan R, Sakhare SD, Meera MS. Effect of germination-hydrothermal treatments followed by fractionation on inhibitory factors, β-carotene and iron-zinc bioaccessibility in pearl millet fractions. J Cereal Sci. 2020;93:102930. [DOI]

77.

Kyomugasho C, Gwala S, Christiaens S, Jamsazzadeh Kermani Z, Van Loey AM, Grauwet T, et al. Pectin nanostructure influences pectin-cation interactions and in vitro-bioaccessibility of Ca²⁺, Zn²⁺, Fe²⁺ and Mg²⁺-ions in model systems. Food Hydrocolloids. 2017;62:299–310. [DOI]

78.

Rousseau S, Kyomugasho C, Celus M, Yeasmen N, Hendrickx ME, Grauwet T. Zinc bioaccessibility is affected by the presence of calcium ions and degree of methylesterification in pectin-based model systems. Food Hydrocolloids. 2019;90:206–15. [DOI]

79.

Thakur A, Sharma V, Thakur A. An overview of anti-nutritional factors in food. Int J Chem Stud. 2019;7:2472–9.

80.

Goyal M. Oxalate accumulation in fodder crops and impact on grazing animals-A Review. Forage Res. 2018;44:152–8.

81.

Ramteke R, Doneria R, Gendley MK. Antinutritional Factors in Feed and Fodder used for Livestock and Poultry Feeding. Acta Sci Nutr Health. 2019;3:39–48.

82.

Urooj A. Impact of household processing methods on the nutritional characteristics of pearl millet (Pennisetumtyphoideum): a review. MOJ Food Process Technol. 2017;4:28–32. [DOI]

83.

Saleh ASM, Zhang Q, Chen J, Shen Q. Millet grains: nutritional quality, processing, and potential health benefits. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf. 2013;12:281–95.

84.

Abah CR, Ishiwu CN, Obiegbuna JE, Oladejo AA. Nutritional Composition, Functional Properties and Food Applications of Millet Grains. Asian Food Sci J. 2020;14:9–19. [DOI]

85.

Abdelseed BH, Hassan HA, Adiamo OQ, Ahmed SO, Babiker EE. Impact of decortication methods on total phenolic content, antioxidant activity and oxidative stability of two pearl millet cultivars during storage. Annals Food Sci Technol. 2018;19:810–6.

86.

Yousaf L, Hou D, Liaqat H, Shen Q. Millet: A review of its nutritional and functional changes during processing. Food Res Int. 2021;142:110197. [DOI] [PubMed]

87.

Hendek Ertop M, Bektaş M. Enhancement of bioavailable micronutrients and reduction of antinutrients in foods with some processes. Food Health. 2018;4:159–65. [DOI]

88.

Thorat A, Rawool S, Ajbani S, Salvi A, Chheda S, Ghugre PS, et al. Effect of Processing on Total Iron and Zinc, Ionizable Iron, Extractable Zinc, Phytate and Phytate: Mineral Ratios in Pearl Millet. Adv Food Sci Eng. 2017;1:129–43. [DOI]

89.

Adebo JA, Njobeh PB, Gbashi S, Oyedeji AB, Ogundele OM, Oyeyinka SA, et al. Fermentation of Cereals and Legumes: Impact on Nutritional Constituents and Nutrient Bioavailability. Fermentation. 2022;8:63. [DOI]

90.

Rathore T, Singh R, Kamble DB, Upadhyay A, Thangalakshmi S. Review on finger millet: Processing and value addition. Pharma Innovation J. 2019;8:283–91.

91.

Luithui Y, Meera MS. Effect of heat processing on the physicochemical properties of Job’s tears grain. J Food Meas Charact. 2019;13:874–82. [DOI]

92.

Amedor EN, Sarpong F, Bordoh PK, Boateng EF, Owusu-Kwarteng J. Impact of pretreatment and drying on the chemical composition and sensory quality of fried yam (Dioscorea rotundata) chips. Explor Foods Foodomics. 2025;3:101095. [DOI]

93.

Xiao HW, Pan Z, Deng LZ, El-Mashad HM, Yang XH, Mujumdar AS, et al. Recent developments and trends in thermal blanching – A comprehensive review. Inf Process Agric. 2017;4:101–27. [DOI]

94.

Lemmens E, Moroni AV, Pagand J, Heirbaut P, Ritala A, Karlen Y, et al. Impact of Cereal Seed Sprouting on Its Nutritional and Technological Properties: A Critical Review. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf. 2019;18:305–28. [DOI] [PubMed]

95.

Sow MS, Sarr F, Mertz C, Cisse M, Fall SM, Diallo D, et al. Effects of fermentation, germination, roasting and mono-screw extrusion cooking on the phytate and iron contents of millet souna produced in Senegal (Pennisetum glaucum). J Nutrition Health Food Sci. 2019;7:1–7. [DOI]

96.

Zanabria Eyzaguirre R, Nienaltowska K, de Jong LE, Hasenack BB, Nout MR. Effect of food processing of pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) IKMP-5 on the level of phenolics, phytate, iron and zinc. J Sci Food Agric. 2006;86:1391–8. [DOI]

97.

Pranoto Y, Anggrahini S, Efendi Z. Effect of natural and Lactobacillus plantarum fermentation on in-vitro protein and starch digestibilities of sorghum flour. Food Biosci. 2013;2:46–52. [DOI]

98.

Day CN, Morawicki RO. Effects of Fermentation by Yeast and Amylolytic Lactic Acid Bacteria on Grain Sorghum Protein Content and Digestibility. J Food Qual. 2018;2018:3964392. [DOI]

99.

Bindra D, Manju. Formulation and evaluation of foods from composite flour blends of sorghum, pearl millet and whole wheat for suitability in diabetic diet. Int J Home Sci. 2019;5:220–9.

100.

Sihag MK, Sharma V, Goyal A, Arora S, Singh AK. Effect of Domestic Processing Treatments on Iron, β-Carotene, Phytic Acid and Polyphenols of Pearl Millet. Cogent Food Agric. 2015;1:1109171. [DOI]

101.

Lestienne I, Besançon P, Caporiccio B, Lullien-Péllerin V, Tréche S. Iron and zinc in vitro availability in pearl millet flours (Pennisetum glaucum) with varying phytate, tannin, and fiber contents. J Agric Food Chem. 2005;53:3240–7. [DOI] [PubMed]

102.

Biofortification of Food Crops. In: Singh U, Praharaj CS, Singh SS, Singh NP, editors. Springer New Delhi; 2016. [DOI]

103.

Sulaiman N, Givens DI, Anitha S. A Narrative Review: In-vitro Methods for Assessing Bio-Accessibility/Bioavailability of Iron in Plant-Based Foods. Front Sustain Food Syst. 2021;5:727533. [DOI]

104.

Yaro J, Adzitey F, Huda N. Roasted Pearl Millet Flour (RoPMF) Improved the Mineral Composition of Beef Sausages. Int J Adv Sci Eng Inf Technol. 2021;11:769–75. [DOI]

105.

Adebiyi JA, Obadina AO, Adebo OA, Kayitesi E. Comparison of nutritional quality and sensory acceptability of biscuits obtained from native, fermented, and malted pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) flour. Food Chem. 2017;232:210–7. [DOI] [PubMed]

106.

Kindiki MM, Onyango A, Kyalo F. Effects of Processing on Nutritional and Sensory Quality of Pearl Millet Flour. Food Sci Qual Manage. 2015;42:13–20.

107.

La Frano MR, de Moura FF, Boy E, Lönnerdal B, Burri BJ. Bioavailability of iron, zinc, and provitamin A carotenoids in biofortified staple crops. Nutr Rev. 2014;72:289–307. [DOI] [PubMed]

108.

Gibson R. Ascorbic Acid – Friend or Foe? Proceedings of 35th Annual New York Wine Industry Workshop; 2026. pp. 60–76.

109.

Van der Merwe R, Kruger J, Ferruzzi MG, Duodu KG, Taylor JRN. Improving iron and zinc bioaccessibility through food-to-food fortification of pearl millet with tropical plant foodstuffs (moringa leaf powder, roselle calyces and baobab fruit pulp). J Food Sci Technol. 2019;56:2244–56. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

110.

Adetola OY, Kruger J, White Z, Taylor JRN. Comparison between food-to-food fortification of pearl millet porridge with moringa leaves and baobab fruit and with adding ascorbic and citric acid on iron, zinc and other mineral bioaccessibility. LWT. 2019;106:92–7. [DOI]

111.

Oghbaei M, Prakash J. Effect of fractional milling of wheat on nutritional quality of milled fractions. Trends Carbohydr Res. 2013; 5:52–8.

112.

Mawouma S, Awoudamkine E, Ponka R, Ndjidda YV, Dzusuo Tedom W. Food-to-Food Fortification of a Traditional Pearl Millet Gruel with a Natural Source of β-Carotene (Sweet Potato) Improves the Bioaccessibility of Iron and Zinc. J Food Qual. 2023;2023:6413244. [DOI]

113.

Greppi A, Krych Ł, Costantini A, Rantsiou K, Hounhouigan DJ, Arneborg N, et al. Phytase-producing capacity of yeasts isolated from traditional African fermented food products and PHYPk gene expression of Pichia kudriavzevii strains. Int J Food Microbiol. 2015;205:81–9. [DOI] [PubMed]

114.

Qvirist L. On yeasts from traditional fermented foods characterization, phytate degradation, strain improvement and applications [dissertation]. Sweden: Chalmers University of Technology; 2016.

115.

Raghavendra P. Biotechnological studies on phytate degrading lactic acid bacteria: screening, isolation, characterization and application [dissertation]. University of Mysore; 2011.

116.

Arteaga-Cabrera E, Ramírez-Márquez C, Sánchez-Ramírez E, Segovia-Hernández JG, Osorio-Mora O, Gómez-Salazar JA. Advancing Optimization Strategies in the Food Industry: From Traditional Approaches to Multi-Objective and Technology-Integrated Solutions. Appl Sci. 2025;15:3846. [DOI]

117.

Rheem S. Optimizing Food Processing through a New Approach to Response Surface Methodology. Food Sci Anim Resour. 2023;43:374–81. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

118.

Atter A, Diaz M, Tano-Debrah K, Kunadu AP, Mayer MJ, Colquhoun IJ, et al. Microbial Diversity and Metabolite Profile of Fermenting Millet in the Production of Hausa koko, a Ghanaian Fermented Cereal Porridge. Front Microbiol. 2021;12:681983. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

119.

Thakur P, Kumar K, Ahmed N, Chauhan D, Eain Hyder Rizvi QU, Jan S, et al. Effect of soaking and germination treatments on nutritional, anti-nutritional, and bioactive properties of amaranth (Amaranthus hypochondriacus L.), quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa L.), and buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum L.). Curr Res Food Sci. 2021;4:917–25. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

120.

Nsabimana S, Ismail T, Lazarte CE. Enhancing iron and zinc bioavailability in maize (Zea mays) through phytate reduction: the impact of fermentation alone and in combination with soaking and germination. Front Nutr. 2024;11:1478155. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

121.

Kumari A, Roy A. Enhancing micronutrient absorption through simultaneous fortification and phytic acid degradation. Food Sci Biotechnol. 2023;32:1235–56. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

122.

Manzoor MF, Ali A, Badar Ul Ain H, Kausar S, Khalil AA, Aadil RM, et al. Bioaccessibility mechanisms, fortification strategies, processing impact on bioavailability, and therapeutic potentials of minerals in cereals. Future Foods. 2024;10:100425. [DOI]

123.

Santhosh AV, Malashree L, Rajunaik B, Manjunatha H, Ramachandra B. Optimization of Soaking Conditions to Enhance Protein and Reduce Phytate Content in Foxtail Millet (Setaria italica). J Adv Biol Biotechnol. 2024;7:1408–17. [DOI]

124.

Feitosa S, Greiner R, Meinhardt A, Müller A, Almeida DT, Posten C. Effect of Traditional Household Processes on Iron, Zinc and Copper Bioaccessibility in Black Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). Foods. 2018;7:123. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

125.

Luo Y, Xie W. Effect of soaking and sprouting on iron and zinc availability in green and white faba bean (Vicia faba L.). J Food Sci Technol. 2014;51:3970–6. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

126.

Krishnan R, Meera MS. Pearl millet minerals: effect of processing on bioaccessibility. J Food Sci Technol. 2018;55:3362–72. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

127.

Anberbir SM, Satheesh N, Abera AA, Tenagashaw MW, Asres DT, Tiruneh AT, et al. Effect of blending ratio and fermentation time on the physicochemical, microbiological, and sensory qualities of injera from teff, pearl millet, and buckwheat flours. CyTA – J Food. 2023;21:217–36. [DOI]

128.

Islam S, Miah MAS, Islam MF, Tisa KJ, Bhuiyan MHR, Bhuiyan MNI, et al. Fermentation with lactic acid bacteria enhances the bioavailability of bioactive compounds of whole wheat flour. Appl Food Res. 2024;4:100610. [DOI]

129.

Pires SMG, Reis RS, Cardoso SM, Pezzani R, Paredes-Osses E, Seilkhan A, et al. Phytates as a natural source for health promotion: A critical evaluation of clinical trials. Front Chem. 2023;11:1174109. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

130.

Bouakkaz S, Zerizer H, Rachedi K, Accettulli A, Racioppo A, Bevilacqua A. African cereal-based fermented foods: Microbiota, functional microorganisms, starter cultures and nutritional properties. Food Biosci. 2024;62:105212. [DOI]

131.

Hayes AMR, Swackhamer C, Mennah-Govela YA, Martinez MM, Diatta A, Bornhorst GM, et al. Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) couscous breaks down faster than wheat couscous in the Human Gastric Simulator, though has slower starch hydrolysis. Food Funct. 2020;11:111–22. [DOI] [PubMed]

132.

Embashu W, Cheikhyoussef A, Kahaka GK, Lendelvo SM. Processing methods of Oshikundu, a traditional beverage from sub-tribes within Aawambo culture in the Northern Namibia. J Stud Humanit Soc Sci. 2013;2:117–27.

133.

Jaybhaye RV, Pardeshi IL, Vengaiah PC, Srivastav PP. Processing and technology for millet based food products: a review. J Ready Eat Food. 2014;1:32–48.

134.

Pswarayi F, Gänzle MG. Composition and Origin of the Fermentation Microbiota of Mahewu, a Zimbabwean Fermented Cereal Beverage. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2019;85:e03130–18. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

135.

Embashu W, Nantanga KKM. Pearl millet grain: A mini-review of the milling, fermentation and brewing of ontaku, a non-alcoholic traditional beverage in Namibia. Trans R Soc S Afr. 2019;74:276–82. [DOI]

136.

Sekwati-Monang B, Gänzle MG. Microbiological and chemical characterisation of ting, a sorghum-based sourdough product from Botswana. Int J Food Microbiol. 2011;150:115–21. [DOI] [PubMed]

137.

Terna G, Jideani IA, Nkama I. Nutritional Composition of Different Types of Kunu Produced in Bauchi and Gombe States of Nigeria. Int J Food Prop. 2002;5:351–7. [DOI]

138.

Nyanzi R, Jooste PJ. Cereal-Based Functional Foods. In: Rigobelo EC, editor. Probiotics. London: IntechOpen; 2012. [DOI]