The authors acknowledge the medical director and staff of the participating health care facilities used for this study for their cooperation. We also appreciate the final-year students from the Department of Environmental Management and Toxicology, University of Benin, for their technical support during the field monitoring, spatio-temporal data collection, and questionnaire administration phases.
Author contributions
AFE: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. HOO: Investigation, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing, Supervision, Validation. Both authors read and approved the submitted version.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
Ethical approval
The study was approved by the Health Research Ethics Committee of the University of Benin Teaching Hospital (Protocol Number: ADM/E22/A/VOL.VII/1486549125536), and complies with the Declaration of Helsinki.
Consent to participate
Informed consent to participate in the study was obtained from all participants.
Consent to publication
Informed consent to publication was obtained from relevant participants.
Availability of data and materials
The data of this manuscript could be available from the corresponding authors upon reasonable request.
Open Exploration maintains a neutral stance on jurisdictional claims in published institutional affiliations and maps. All opinions expressed in this article are the personal views of the author(s) and do not represent the stance of the editorial team or the publisher.
References
de Lira CRN, Akutsu RC, Costa PRF, Leite LO, da Silva KBB, Botelho RBA, et al. Occupational Risks in Hospitals, Quality of Life, and Quality of Work Life: A Systematic Review.Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18:11434. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Salthammer T, Mentese S, Marutzky R. Formaldehyde in the Indoor Environment.Chem Rev. 2010;110:2536–72. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Rai R, El-Zaemey S, Dorji N, Rai BD, Fritschi L. Exposure to occupational hazards among health care workers in low- and middle-income countries: a scoping review.Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18:2603. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Dumas O, Boggs KM, Quinot C, Varraso R, Zock JP, Henneberger PK, et al. Occupational exposure to disinfectants and asthma incidence in U.S. nurses: A prospective cohort study.Am J Ind Med. 2020;63:44–50. [DOI]
Ibrahim B, Le Moual N, Sit G, Goldberg M, Leynaert B, Ribet C, et al. Occupational Exposure Patterns to Disinfectants and Cleaning Products and Its Association With Asthma Among French Healthcare Workers.Am J Ind Med. 2025;68:516–30. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
World Health Organization. WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide. City: World Health Organization; 2021.
Lee K, Choi JH, Lee S, Park HJ, Oh YJ, Kim GB, et al. Indoor levels of volatile organic compounds and formaldehyde from emission sources at elderly care centers in Korea.PLOS ONE. 2018;13:e0197495. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Virji MA, Bowers LN, LeBouf RF. Inhalation and Skin Exposure to Chemicals in Hospital Settings. In: Zhang Y, Hopke PK, Mandin C, editors. Handbook of Indoor Air Quality. Springer; 2022. pp. 1987–2022. [DOI]
Aryal A, Harmon AC, Dugas TR. Particulate matter air pollutants and cardiovascular disease: Strategies for intervention.Pharmacol Ther. 2021;223:107890. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Zhang D, Zhang J, Qi Q, Pan Y, Zeng R, Xu C, et al. TNFSF11/TNFRSF11A Axis Amplifies HDM-Induced Airway Remodeling by Strengthening TGFβ1/STAT3 Action.Allergy Asthma Immunol Res. 2024;16:399–421. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Zhang D, Qiao XR, Cui WJ, Zhang JT, Pan Y, Liu XF, et al. Syndecan-1 Amplifies Ovalbumin-Induced Airway Remodeling by Strengthening TGFβ1/Smad3 Action.Front Immunol. 2021;12:744477. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Zhang D, Yang H, Dong XL, Zhang JT, Liu XF, Pan Y, et al. TL1A/DR3 Axis, A Key Target of TNF-a, Augments the Epithelial–Mesenchymal Transformation of Epithelial Cells in OVA-Induced Asthma.Front Immunol. 2022;13:854995. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
ASHRAE. Standard 62.1-2022: Ventilation for acceptable indoor air quality. Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers; 2022.
Khajeh Hoseini L, Jalilzadeh Yengejeh R, Mohammadi Rouzbehani M, Sabzalipour S. Health risk assessment of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in a refinery in the southwest of Iran using SQRA method.Front Public Health. 2022;10:978354. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Barbey C, Bonvallot N, Clerc F. Health Outcomes Related to Multiple Exposures in Occupational Settings: A Review.Saf Health Work. 2024;15:382–95. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. Risk assessment guidance for superfund volume I: human health evaluation manual (Part F, supplemental guidance for inhalation risk assessment). Washington, DC: EPA; 2009.
National Environmental Standards and Regulations Enforcement Agency (NESREA). National environmental (air quality control) regulations. Abuja: Federal Republic of Nigeria Official Gazette; 2014. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Olise FS. Bridging data gaps in Nigerian air pollution: coverage, infrastructural challenges, and public health implications.Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2025;32:23331–50. [DOI] [PubMed]
Adeleye AO, Nicholas S, Shiaka PG, Yerima MB. Mycological assessment of indoor air quality: cross-sectional study of selected private hospitals in Dutse, Jigawa State, Northwest Nigeria.J Clean WAS. 2023;7:30–5. [DOI]
National Population Commission (NPC) [Nigeria], ICF International. Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey 2021. Rockville, Maryland: NPC and ICF International; 2022. [DOI]
United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA).Exposure Factors Handbook: 2011 Edition (Final Report). Washington, DC: EPA; 2011. Report No.: EPA/600/R-09/052F.
Othman M, Latif MT. Pollution characteristics, sources, and health risk assessments of urban road dust in Kuala Lumpur City.Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2020;27:11227–45. [DOI] [PubMed]
Horvat T, Pehnec G, Jakovljević I. Volatile Organic Compounds in Indoor Air: Sampling, Determination, Sources, Health Risk, and Regulatory Insights.Toxics. 2025;13:344. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Zhou Y, Li C, Huijbregts MA, Mumtaz MM. Carcinogenic Air Toxics Exposure and Their Cancer-Related Health Impacts in the United States.PLOS ONE. 2015;10:e0140013. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Kraft A, Bateson TF, Glenn B. IRIS Toxicological Review of Formaldehyde (Inhalation) CASRN 50-00-0. Washington (DC): U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; 2024. [PubMed]
Yamane T. Statistics: An introductory analysis. 2nd ed. New York: Harper and Row; 1967.
Bonett DG, Wright TA. Cronbach’s alpha reliability: Interval estimation, hypothesis testing, and sample size planning.J Organ Behav. 2014;36:3–15. [DOI]
Wang J, Zhang X, Zhang K, Zheng Z. Characterization of Size Distribution and Concentration of Atmospheric Particles During Summer in Zhuzhou, China.Pol J Environ Stud. 2018;27:2793–800. [DOI]
Lee HJ, Lee KH, Kim DK. Evaluation and comparison of the indoor air quality in different areas of the hospital.Medicine. 2020;99:e23942. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Ashuro Z, Husen Washo G, Diriba K. Indoor Air Quality in Hospital Settings.Environ Health Lit Update - New Evid Methodol Perspect. 2023. [DOI]
Shao Z, Yin X, Bi J, Ma Z, Wang J. Spatiotemporal Variations of Indoor PM2.5 Concentrations in Nanjing, China.Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2019;16:144. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Van Scott MR, Chandler J, Olmstead S, Brown JM, Mannie M. Airway Anatomy, Physiology, and Inflammation. In: Shusterman D, Wallace D, editors. The Toxicant Induction of Irritant Asthma, Rhinitis, and Related Conditions. New York, NY: Springer; 2013. pp. 19–61. [DOI]
Zabiegala B. Organic compounds in indoor environments.Pol J Environ Stud. 2006;15:383–93.
Harper RW, Zeki AA. Immunobiology of the critical asthma syndrome.Clin Rev Allergy Immunol. 2015;48:54–65. [DOI]
Ibrahim F, Samsudin EZ, Ishak AR, Sathasivam J. Hospital indoor air quality and its relationships with building design, building operation, and occupant-related factors: A mini-review.Front Public Health. 2022;10:1067764. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Malakan W, KC S, Jalearnkittiwut T, Samniang W. Indoor Air Pollution of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) in Hospitals in Thailand: Review of Current Practices, Challenges, and Recommendations.Atmosphere. 2025;16:1135. [DOI]
Lam K, Au E, Ip WK, Tam JK, Leung PSC. Inhalant Mediated Allergy: Immunobiology, Clinical Manifestations and Diagnosis.Clin Rev Allergy Immunol. 2025;68:43. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Chapman DG, Irvin CG. Mechanisms of airway hyper‐responsiveness in asthma: the past, present and yet to come.Clin Exp Allergy. 2015;45:706–19. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Alford KL, Kumar N. Pulmonary Health Effects of Indoor Volatile Organic Compounds—A Meta-Analysis.Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18:1578. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Veysi R, Heibati B, Jahangiri M, Kumar P, Latif MT, Karimi A. Indoor air quality-induced respiratory symptoms of a hospital staff in Iran.Environ Monit Assess. 2019;191:50. [DOI] [PubMed]
Loureiro A, Ferreira A, Barros N. Systematic review of the literature on indoor air quality in healthcare units and its effects on health.BMC Public Health. 2025;25:2398. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Emuren K, Ordinioha B. Physico-chemical assessment of indoor air quality of a tertiary hospital in South–South Nigeria.Port Harcourt Med J. 2016;11:21.
Chen CF, Hsu CH, Chang YJ, Lee CH, Lee DL. Efficacy of HEPA Air Cleaner on Improving Indoor Particulate Matter 2.5 Concentration.Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022;19:11517. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Colas A, Baudet A, Le Cann P, Blanchard O, Gangneux JP, Baurès E, et al. Quantitative Health Risk Assessment of the Chronic Inhalation of Chemical Compounds in Healthcare and Elderly Care Facilities.Toxics. 2022;10:141. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Jafari Shahri M, Sarkhosh M, Alidadi H, Najafpoor AA, Ghavami V, Baridkazemi S. Assessing the risks associated with indoor and outdoor air quality in relation to the geographic placement of nursing home.Heliyon. 2024;10:e32601. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Abulude FO, Oluwagbayide SD, Akinnusotu A, Arifalo KM, Adamu A, Kenni AM. A Comprehensive Analysis of Risk Assessment of Particulate Matter in Five Health Centers in Akure, Nigeria.Pollutants. 2024;4:72–90. [DOI]
