Exploration of Neuroscience

Biological	Psychological	Social
Health condition Comorbidities Physical wellbeing	Stressful life events Emotional trauma Physical trauma Current or history of substance misuse	Lifestyle Day-to-day activities Work patterns Housing Income Social/Family support

Supplementary materials

The supplementary table for this article is available at: https://www.explorationpub.com/uploads/Article/file/1006129_sup_1.pdf.

Declarations

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to express their deepest gratitude to their families for their unwavering support throughout this research journey.

Author contributions

KET: Conceptualization, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. RC: Writing—review & editing, Supervision. AG: Writing—review & editing. MH: Writing—review & editing. All authors read and approved the submitted version.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Funding

Not applicable.

Copyright

Publisher’s note

Open Exploration maintains a neutral stance on jurisdictional claims in published institutional affiliations and maps. All opinions expressed in this article are the personal views of the author(s) and do not represent the stance of the editorial team or the publisher.

References

Terminology [Internet]. International Association for the Study of Pain; c2021 [cited 2023 Jul 25]. Available from: https://www.iasp-pain.org/resources/terminology/

What is pain? [Internet]. The British Pain Society; c2026 [cited 2024 Jan 17]. Available from: https://www.britishpainsociety.org/about/what-is-pain/

Chronic pain (primary and secondary) in over 16s: assessment of all chronic pain and management of chronic primary pain. London: National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE); 2021 Apr 7. [PubMed]

Argoff CE, McCleane G. Pain Management Secrets. 3rd ed. Elsevier; 2009.

Ho EK, Chen L, Simic M, Ashton-James CE, Comachio J, Wang DXM, et al. Psychological interventions for chronic, non-specific low back pain: systematic review with network meta-analysis. BMJ. 2022;376:e067718. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Piano L, Ritorto V, Vigna I, Trucco M, Lee H, Chiarotto A. Individual Patient Education for Managing Acute and/or Subacute Low Back Pain: Little Additional Benefit for Pain and Function Compared to Placebo. A Systematic Review With Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2022;52:432–45. [DOI] [PubMed]

Neuropathic Pain [Internet]. International Association for the Study of Pain; c2021 [cited 2024 Jan 1]. Available from https://www.iasp-pain.org/group/neuropathic-pain-neupsig/

Chronic Pain in Adults 2017 Health Survey for England [Internet]. Public Health England; c2020 [cited 2024 Jan 3]. Available from: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5fc8c6b78fa8f547585ed7f3/Chronic_Pain_Report.pdf

British Pain Society Press release: Chronic pain costs the UK £billions but research funding is inadequate [Internet]. The British Pain Society; c2026 [cited 2024 Feb 2]. Available from: https://www.britishpainsociety.org/mediacentre/news/british-pain-society-press-release-chronic-pain-costs-the-uk-billions-but-research-funding-is-inadequate/

10.

UK Pain Key Messages [Internet]. Faculty of Pain Medicine; [cited 2024 Jan 3]. Available from: https://fpm.ac.uk/patients/uk-pain-key-messages

11.

Phillips CJ. The Cost and Burden of Chronic Pain. Rev Pain. 2009;3:2–5. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

12.

National Pain Audit Final Report 2010–2012 [Internet]. The British Pain Society; [cited 2024 Feb 16]. Available from: https://www.britishpainsociety.org/static/uploads/resources/files/members_articles_npa_2012_1.pdf

13.

Managing Chronic Pain in the Community- the Invisible Epidemic [Internet]. Pain Relief Foundation; [cited 2024 Feb 16]. Available from: https://painrelieffoundation.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/PAIN-PRESENTATION-Imogen-Tuke.pdf

14.

Core Standards for Pain Management Services in the UK Second Edition [Internet]. Faculty of Pain Medicine of the Royal College of Anaesthetists; c2021 [cited 2024 Jan 3]. Available from: https://www.britishpainsociety.org/static/uploads/resources/files/FPM-Core-Standards-2021.pdf

15.

Brennan F, Lohman D, Gwyther L. Access to Pain Management as a Human Right. Am J Public Health. 2019;109:61–5. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

16.

Chou R, Turner JA, Devine EB, Hansen RN, Sullivan SD, Blazina I, et al. The effectiveness and risks of long-term opioid therapy for chronic pain: a systematic review for a National Institutes of Health Pathways to Prevention Workshop. Ann Intern Med. 2015;162:276–86. [DOI] [PubMed]

17.

Promoting Chronic Pain Self-Management Education [Internet]. International Association for the Study of Pain; c2021 [cited 2024 Jan 31]. Available from: https://www.iasp-pain.org/resources/fact-sheets/promoting-chronic-pain-self-management-education/

18.

Eccleston C, Morley S, de C Williams AC. Psychological approaches to chronic pain management: evidence and challenges. Br J Anaesth. 2013;111:59–63. [DOI] [PubMed]

19.

Psychological ways of managing persistent pain [Internet]. Australian Pain Society; [cited 2024 Jan 31]. Available from: https://www.apsoc.org.au/PDF/Publications/Pain_in_RACF2-Resources/6_APS_Pain-in-RACF-2_Ch3_Psych_mgmt_pain.pdf

20.

Moseley GL, Butler DS. Fifteen Years of Explaining Pain: The Past, Present, and Future. J Pain. 2015;16:807–13. [DOI] [PubMed]

21.

Majeed MH, Ali AA, Sudak DM. Mindfulness-based interventions for chronic pain: Evidence and applications. Asian J Psychiatr. 2018;32:79–83. [DOI] [PubMed]

22.

People Living With Pain [Internet]. The British Pain Society; c2026 [cited 2024 Feb 2]. Available from: https://www.britishpainsociety.org/people-with-pain/

23.

Themelis K, Gillett JL, Karadag P, Cheatle MD, Giordano NA, Balasubramanian S, et al. Mental Defeat and Suicidality in Chronic Pain: A Prospective Analysis. J Pain. 2023;24:2079–92. [DOI] [PubMed]

24.

Zale EL, Ditre JW. Pain-Related Fear, Disability, and the Fear-Avoidance Model of Chronic Pain. Curr Opin Psychol. 2015;5:24–30. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

25.

Hadi MA, McHugh GA, Closs SJ. Impact of Chronic Pain on Patients’ Quality of Life: A Comparative Mixed-Methods Study. J Patient Exp. 2019;6:133–41. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

26.

Outcome Measures [Internet]. The British Pain Society; [cited 2024 Feb 2]. Available from: https://www.britishpainsociety.org/static/uploads/resources/files/Outcome_Measures_January_2019.pdf

27.

Butler DS, Moseley GL. Explain Pain. 2nd ed. Adelaide: Noigroup Publications; 2013.

28.

Meeus M, Nijs J, Van Oosterwijck J, Van Alsenoy V, Truijen S. Pain physiology education improves pain beliefs in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome compared with pacing and self-management education: a double-blind randomized controlled trial. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2010;91:1153–9. [DOI] [PubMed]

29.

Fletcher R, Braithwaite FA, Woodhouse M, MacInnes A, Stanton TR. Does readiness to change influence pain-related outcomes after an educational intervention for people with chronic pain? A pragmatic, preliminary study. Physiother Theory Pract. 2019;37:608–19. [DOI] [PubMed]

30.

Darnall BD, Roy A, Chen AL, Ziadni MS, Keane RT, You DS, et al. Comparison of a Single-Session Pain Management Skills Intervention With a Single-Session Health Education Intervention and 8 Sessions of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy in Adults With Chronic Low Back Pain: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4:e2113401. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

31.

Sandhu HK, Booth K, Furlan AD, Shaw J, Carnes D, Taylor SJC, et al. Reducing Opioid Use for Chronic Pain With a Group-Based Intervention: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA. 2023;329:1745–56. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

32.

Traeger AC, Lee H, Hübscher M, Skinner IW, Moseley GL, Nicholas MK, et al. Effect of Intensive Patient Education vs Placebo Patient Education on Outcomes in Patients With Acute Low Back Pain: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Neurol. 2019;76:161–9. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

33.

Moseley GL, Nicholas MK, Hodges PW. A randomized controlled trial of intensive neurophysiology education in chronic low back pain. Clin J Pain. 2004;20:324–30. [DOI] [PubMed]

34.

Linton SJ, Andersson T. Can chronic disability be prevented? A randomized trial of a cognitive-behavior intervention and two forms of information for patients with spinal pain. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2000;25:2825–31. [DOI] [PubMed]

35.

Deshpande N, Wu M, Kelly C, Woodrick N, Werner DA, Volerman A, et al. Video-Based Educational Interventions for Patients With Chronic Illnesses: Systematic Review. J Med Internet Res. 2023;25:e41092. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

36.

Zgierska AE, Burzinski CA, Cox J, Kloke J, Stegner A, Cook DB, et al. Mindfulness Meditation and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Intervention Reduces Pain Severity and Sensitivity in Opioid-Treated Chronic Low Back Pain: Pilot Findings from a Randomized Controlled Trial. Pain Med. 2016;17:1865–81. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

37.

Geneen LJ, Martin DJ, Adams N, Clarke C, Dunbar M, Jones D, et al. Effects of education to facilitate knowledge about chronic pain for adults: a systematic review with meta-analysis. Syst Rev. 2015;4:132. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

38.

Jani M, Yimer BB, Sheppard T, Lunt M, Dixon WG. Time trends and prescribing patterns of opioid drugs in UK primary care patients with non-cancer pain: A retrospective cohort study. PLoS Med. 2020;17:e1003270. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

39.

Trouvin A, Carvès S, Rouquette A, Coste J, Meyer S, Colin F, et al. “FastSchool”: A single session of an interprofessional pain management program for chronic pain patients inspired by cognitive behavioral therapy. Patient Educ Couns. 2022;105:3509–14. [DOI] [PubMed]

40.

Opioids for long term pain [Internet]. Faculty of Pain Medicine of the Royal College of Anaesthetists; [cited 2024 Feb 27]. Available from: https://fpm.ac.uk/opioids-aware-clinical-use-opioids/opioids-long-term-pain

41.

Page MJ, McKenzie JE, Bossuyt PM, Boutron I, Hoffmann TC, Mulrow CD, et al. The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ. 2021;372:n71. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]