Open Exploration maintains a neutral stance on jurisdictional claims in published institutional affiliations and maps. All opinions expressed in this article are the personal views of the author(s) and do not represent the stance of the editorial team or the publisher.
References
Kim KY, Shin KY, Chang KA. GFAP as a Potential Biomarker for Alzheimer’s Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.Cells. 2023;12:1309. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Zhang X, Wang J, Zhang Z, Ye K. Tau in neurodegenerative diseases: molecular mechanisms, biomarkers, and therapeutic strategies.Transl Neurodegener. 2024;13:40. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Ebbesen SU, Høgh P, Zibrandtsen I. Plasma Aβ biomarker for early diagnosis and prognosis of Alzheimer’s disease – a systematic review.Dan Med J. 2023;70:A07220446. [PubMed]
Hammond CJ, Hallock LR, Howanski RJ, Appelt DM, Little CS, Balin BJ. Immunohistological detection of Chlamydia pneumoniae in the Alzheimer’s disease brain.BMC Neurosci. 2010;11:121. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Pluta R. A Look at the Etiology of Alzheimer’s Disease based on the Brain Ischemia Model.Curr Alzheimer Res. 2024;21:166–82. [DOI] [PubMed]
Zacharias HU, Kaleta C, Cossais F, Schaeffer E, Berndt H, Best L, et al. Microbiome and Metabolome Insights into the Role of the Gastrointestinal-Brain Axis in Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s Disease: Unveiling Potential Therapeutic Targets.Metabolites. 2022;12:1222. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Barton JR. Analysis of Chlamydia Pneumoniae and AD-like Pathology in the Brains of BALB/c Mice Following Direct Intracranial Infection with Chlamydia Pneumoniae [dissertation]. Philadelphia (PA): Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine; 2011.
Shima K, Kuhlenbäumer G, Rupp J. Chlamydia pneumoniae infection and Alzheimer’s disease: a connection to remember?Med Microbiol Immunol. 2010;199:283–9. [DOI] [PubMed]
Carango PJG. Associating infection by Chlamydia pneumoniae and the presence of amyloid-β plaques in the brains of Alzheimer’s disease/dementia patients [dissertation]. Philadelphia (PA): Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine; 2022.
Balin BJ, Hammond CJ, Little CS, Hingley ST, Al-Atrache Z, Appelt DM, et al. Chlamydia pneumoniae: An Etiologic Agent for Late-Onset Dementia.Front Aging Neurosci. 2018;10:302. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Zheng Q, Wang X. Alzheimer’s disease: insights into pathology, molecular mechanisms, and therapy.Protein Cell. 2025;16:83–120. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Little CS, Hammond CJ, MacIntyre A, Balin BJ, Appelt DM. Chlamydia pneumoniae induces Alzheimer-like amyloid plaques in brains of BALB/c mice.Neurobiol Aging. 2004;25:419–29. [DOI] [PubMed]
Subedi L, Martinon D, Vit JP, Fuchs DT, Lane ME, Mita M, et al. Intranasal Chlamydia pneumoniae Infection Induces Neuroinflammation and Cognitive Decline in Mice.Alzheimer’s Dement. 2025;20:e083564. [DOI]
Al-Atrache Z, Lopez DB, Hingley ST, Appelt DM. Astrocytes infected with Chlamydia pneumoniae demonstrate altered expression and activity of secretases involved in the generation of β-amyloid found in Alzheimer disease.BMC Neurosci. 2019;20:6. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Toth AE, Klepe A, Lipka DV, Goldeman C, Brodin B, Nielsen MS. SorLA in astrocytes regulates blood-brain barrier integrity.Front Drug Deliv. 2023;2:1082689. [DOI]
Dominy SS, Lynch C, Ermini F, Benedyk M, Marczyk A, Konradi A, et al. Porphyromonas gingivalis in Alzheimer’s disease brains: Evidence for disease causation and treatment with small-molecule inhibitors.Sci Adv. 2019;5:eaau3333. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Harris SA, Harris EA. Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 and Other Pathogens are Key Causative Factors in Sporadic Alzheimer’s Disease.J Alzheimers Dis. 2015;48:319–53. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Bennett JE, Dolin R, Blaser MJ, editors. Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett’s Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases. 9th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier; 2020.
Grayston JT, Campbell LA, Kuo CC, Mordhorst CH, Saikku P, Thom DH, et al. A new respiratory tract pathogen: Chlamydia pneumoniae strain TWAR.J Infect Dis. 1990;161:618–25. [DOI] [PubMed]
Contini C, Seraceni S, Cultrera R, Castellazzi M, Granieri E, Fainardi E. Chlamydophila pneumoniae Infection and Its Role in Neurological Disorders.Interdiscip Perspect Infect Dis. 2010;2010:273573. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Lim C, Hammond CJ, Hingley ST, Balin BJ. Chlamydia pneumoniae infection of monocytes in vitro stimulates innate and adaptive immune responses relevant to those in Alzheimer’s disease.J Neuroinflammation. 2014;11:217. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Woods JJ, Skelding KA, Martin KL, Aryal R, Sontag E, Johnstone DM, et al. Assessment of evidence for or against contributions of Chlamydia pneumoniae infections to Alzheimer’s disease etiology.Brain Behav Immun. 2020;83:22–32. [DOI] [PubMed]
Guglielminotti J, Lellouche N, Maury E, Alzieu M, Guidet B, Offenstadt G. Severe Meningoencephalitis: An unusual Manifestation of Chlamydia pneumoniae Infection.Clin Infect Dis. 2000;30:209–10. [DOI] [PubMed]
Fu J, Wei Q, Chen X, Lai X, Shang H. Analysis of the Association Between Pathogen Exposure and the Risk of Dementia.J Alzheimers Dis. 2024;100:961–72. [DOI] [PubMed]
Porter RS, Kaplan JL, editors. The Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy. 19th ed. Whitehouse Station (NJ): Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp; 2011.
Brooks GF, Carroll KC, Butel JS, Morse SA, Mietzner TA, editors. Jawetz, Melnick & Adelberg’s Medical Microbiology. 26th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Education; 2013.
Dubbink JH, Verweij SP, Struthers HE, Ouburg S, McIntyre JA, Morré SA, et al. Genital Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae infections among women in sub-Saharan Africa: A structured review.Int J STD AIDS. 2018;29:806–24. [DOI] [PubMed]
Esposito P, Tinelli C, Libetta C, Gabanti E, Rampino T, Dal Canton A. Impact of seropositivity to Chlamydia pneumoniae and anti-hHSP60 on cardiovascular events in hemodialysis patients.Cell Stress Chaperones. 2011;16:219–24. [DOI] [PubMed]
Zhang Z, Zong X, Bai H, Fan L, Li T, Liu Z. Prevalence of Mycoplasma genitalium and Chlamydia trachomatis in Chinese female with lower reproductive tract infection: a multicenter epidemiological survey.BMC Infect Dis. 2023;23:2. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Novak M, Novak D. Risk factors for Chlamydia trachomatis infection among users of an Internet-based testing service in Sweden.Sex Reprod Healthc. 2013;4:23–7. [DOI] [PubMed]
Rawla P, Thandra KC, Limaiem F. Lymphogranuloma Venereum (Archived). Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2023. [PubMed]
Zheng X, Zhong W, O’Connell CM, Liu Y, Haggerty CL, Geisler WM, et al. Host Genetic Risk Factors for Chlamydia trachomatis-Related Infertility in Women.J Infect Dis. 2021;224:S64–71. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Itzhaki RF, Lathe R, Balin BJ, Ball MJ, Bearer EL, Braak H, et al. Microbes and Alzheimer’s Disease.J Alzheimers Dis. 2016;51:979–84. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Yang J, Liang J, Hu N, He N, Liu B, Liu G, et al. The Gut Microbiota Modulates Neuroinflammation in Alzheimer’s Disease: Elucidating Crucial Factors and Mechanistic Underpinnings.CNS Neurosci Ther. 2024;30:e70091. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Loeb MB, Molloy DW, Smieja M, Standish T, Goldsmith CH, Mahony J, et al. A Randomized, Controlled Trial of Doxycycline and Rifampin for Patients with Alzheimer’s Disease.J Am Geriatr Soc. 2004;52:381–7. [DOI] [PubMed]
Jin Z, Liang J, Wang J, Kolattukudy PE. MCP-induced protein 1 mediates the minocycline-induced neuroprotection against cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury in vitro and in vivo.J Neuroinflammation. 2015;12:39. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Heneka MT, Golenbock DT, Latz E. Innate immunity in Alzheimer’s disease.Nat Immunol. 2015;16:229–36. [DOI] [PubMed]
Xie J, Bruggeman A, De Nolf C, Vandendriessche C, Van Imschoot G, Van Wonterghem E, et al. Gut microbiota regulates blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier function and Aβ pathology.EMBO J. 2023;42:e111515. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Balin BJ, Gérard HC, Arking EJ, Appelt DM, Branigan PJ, Abrams JT, et al. Identification and localization of Chlamydia pneumoniae in the Alzheimer’s brain.Med Microbiol Immunol. 1998;187:23–42. [DOI] [PubMed]
Ring RH, Lyons JM. Failure To Detect Chlamydia pneumoniae in the Late-Onset Alzheimer’s Brain.J Clin Microbiol. 2000;38:2591–4. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Sochocka M, Zwolińska K, Leszek J. The Infectious Etiology of Alzheimer’s Disease.Curr Neuropharmacol. 2017;15:996–1009. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Subedi L, Gaire BP, Koronyo Y, Koronyo-Hamaoui M, Crother TR. Chlamydia pneumoniae in Alzheimer’s disease pathology.Front Neurosci. 2024;18:1393293. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Fekete M, Varga P, Ungvari Z, Fekete JT, Buda A, Szappanos Á, et al. The role of the Mediterranean diet in reducing the risk of cognitive impairment, dementia, and Alzheimer’s disease: a meta-analysis.GeroScience. 2025;47:3111–30. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
