BCG: Bacillus Calmette-Guérin; CTID: ClinicalTrials.gov ID; HJF: Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine; GAM MOH RF: N.F. Gamaleya Federal Research Centre for Epidemiology and Microbiology, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation; GSK: GlaxoSmithKline; MRI: Medical Research Institute; NIH: National Institute of Health; ROA: Route of Administration; SSI: Statens Serum Institute. Based on the Stop TB Partnership Working Group on New TB Vaccines Resources [23].
Declarations
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge Professor Alasdair Leslie, Professor Mohlopheni Jackson Marakalala, and Dr Robert Krause for kindly reviewing the manuscript.
Author contributions
IMM: Conceptualization, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. RMM: Writing—review & editing. RVS: Writing—review & editing. NJH: Supervision. MJ: Conceptualization, Supervision, Funding acquisition. All authors read and approved the submitted version.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
Ethical approval
Not applicable.
Consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent to publication
Not applicable.
Availability of data and materials
Not applicable.
Funding
This article was supported by a University of Cape Town University Research Council Postdoctoral Fellowship Award (CC01-2025). The funder had no role in study design, data collection, analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Open Exploration maintains a neutral stance on jurisdictional claims in published institutional affiliations and maps. All opinions expressed in this article are the personal views of the author(s) and do not represent the stance of the editorial team or the publisher.
References
Villar-Hernández R, Ghodousi A, Konstantynovska O, Duarte R, Lange C, Raviglione M. Tuberculosis: current challenges and beyond.Breathe (Sheff). 2023;19:220166. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Sharma SK, Mohan A. Miliary tuberculosis. In: Schlossberg D, editor. Tuberculosis and nontuberculous mycobacterial infections. 2021. pp. 415–35. [DOI]
Hunter RL. The pathogenesis of tuberculosis: the early infiltrate of post-primary (adult pulmonary) tuberculosis: a distinct disease entity.Front Immunol. 2018;9:2108. [DOI]
Christine T, Tarigan AP, Ananda FR. The Correlation between Levels of Transforming Growth Factor-β with Pulmonary Fibrosis in Post Pulmonary Tuberculosis in Medan, North Sumatera - Indonesia.Open Access Maced J Med Sci. 2019;7:2075–8. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Martinez-Garcia MA, Guan WJ, de-la-Rosa D, Athanazio R, Oscullo G, Shi MX, et al. Post-TB bronchiectasis: from pathogenesis to rehabilitation.Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2023;27:175–81. [DOI] [PubMed]
Shaw JA, Irusen EM, Diacon AH, Koegelenberg CF. Pleural tuberculosis: A concise clinical review.Clin Respir J. 2018;12:1779–86. [DOI] [PubMed]
Lee JY, Lee KS, Jung KJ, Han J, Kwon OJ, Kim J, et al. Pulmonary tuberculosis: CT and pathologic correlation.J Comput Assist Tomogr. 2000;24:691–8. [DOI] [PubMed]
Tobin EH, Tristram D. Tuberculosis Overview.In: StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024.
Narasimhan P, Wood J, Macintyre CR, Mathai D. Risk factors for tuberculosis.Pulm Med. 2013;2013:828939. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Mpagama SG, Msaji KS, Kaswaga O, Zurba LJ, Mbelele PM, Allwood BW, et al. The burden and determinants of post-TB lung disease.Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2021;25:846–53. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
S AK, Wasnik A, Gupta L, Ranjan A, Suresh H. Effectiveness of interventions to improve vaccine efficacy: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Syst Rev. 2025;14:105. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Bouzeyen R, Javid B. Therapeutic Vaccines for Tuberculosis: An Overview.Front Immunol. 2022;13:878471. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Hatherill M, White RG, Hawn TR. Clinical Development of New TB Vaccines: Recent Advances and Next Steps.Front Microbiol. 2020;10:3154. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Vekemans J, Brennan MJ, Hatherill M, Schrager L, Fritzell B, Rutkowski K, et al. Preferred product characteristics for therapeutic vaccines to improve tuberculosis treatment outcomes: Key considerations from World Health Organization consultations.Vaccine. 2020;38:135–42. [DOI] [PubMed]
Frappier A, Guy R. The use of BCG.Can Med Assoc J. 1949;61:18–24. [PubMed] [PMC]
Dos Santos PCP, Messina NL, de Oliveira RD, da Silva PV, Puga MAM, Dalcolmo M, et al. Effect of BCG vaccination against Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in adult Brazilian health-care workers: a nested clinical trial.Lancet Infect Dis. 2024;24:594–601. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Aronson NE, Santosham M, Comstock GW, Howard RS, Moulton LH, Rhoades ER, et al. Long-term efficacy of BCG vaccine in American Indians and Alaska Natives: A 60-year follow-up study.JAMA. 2004;291:2086–91. [DOI] [PubMed]
Nguipdop-Djomo P, Heldal E, Rodrigues LC, Abubakar I, Mangtani P. Duration of BCG protection against tuberculosis and change in effectiveness with time since vaccination in Norway: a retrospective population-based cohort study.Lancet Infect Dis. 2016;16:219–26. [DOI] [PubMed]
Whittaker E, Nicol MP, Zar HJ, Tena-Coki NG, Kampmann B. Age-related waning of immune responses to BCG in healthy children supports the need for a booster dose of BCG in TB endemic countries.Sci Rep. 2018;8:15309. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Zhuang L, Ye Z, Li L, Yang L, Gong W. Next-Generation TB Vaccines: Progress, Challenges, and Prospects.Vaccines (Basel). 2023;11:1304. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Velayutham B. Overview of the tuberculosis vaccine development landscape.Indian J Tuberc. 2025;72:517–20. [DOI] [PubMed]
The Lancet Respiratory Medicine. Tuberculosis: setting achievable targets for elimination.Lancet Respir Med. 2023;11:945. [DOI] [PubMed]
Ogongo P. A broader evaluation of vaccine-induced T cell immunity against tuberculosis.Front Tuberc. 2024;2:1435344. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Camarasa TMN, Iseppi L, Schreiner D, King CG. Tertiary Lymphoid Structures in Tuberculosis: Persistence, Protection, and Pathology.Immunol Rev. 2025;333:e70055. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Madissoon E, Oliver AJ, Kleshchevnikov V, Wilbrey-Clark A, Polanski K, Richoz N, et al. A spatially resolved atlas of the human lung characterizes a gland-associated immune niche.Nat Genet. 2023;55:66–77. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Silva-Sanchez A, Randall TD, Meza-Perez S. Tertiary Lymphoid Structures Among the World of Noncanonical Ectopic Lymphoid Organizations.Methods Mol Biol. 2018;1845:1–15. [DOI] [PubMed]
Cyster JG. B cell follicles and antigen encounters of the third kind.Nat Immunol. 2010;11:989–96. [DOI] [PubMed]
Drayton DL, Liao S, Mounzer RH, Ruddle NH. Lymphoid organ development: from ontogeny to neogenesis.Nat Immunol. 2006;7:344–53. [DOI] [PubMed]
Fletcher AL, Acton SE, Knoblich K. Lymph node fibroblastic reticular cells in health and disease.Nat Rev Immunol. 2015;15:350–61. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Sminia T, van der Brugge-Gamelkoorn GJ, Jeurissen SH. Structure and function of bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue (BALT).Crit Rev Immunol. 1989;9:119–50. [PubMed]
Pabst R, Gehrke I. Is the bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue (BALT) an integral structure of the lung in normal mammals, including humans?Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 1990;3:131–5. [DOI] [PubMed]
Pabst R, Miller LA, Schelegle E, Hyde DM. Organized lymphatic tissue (BALT) in lungs of rhesus monkeys after air pollutant exposure.Anat Rec (Hoboken). 2020;303:2766–73. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Kuroda E, Ozasa K, Temizoz B, Ohata K, Koo CX, Kanuma T, et al. Inhaled Fine Particles Induce Alveolar Macrophage Death and Interleukin-1α Release to Promote Inducible Bronchus-Associated Lymphoid Tissue Formation.Immunity. 2016;45:1299–310. [DOI] [PubMed]
Randall TD, Mebius RE. The development and function of mucosal lymphoid tissues: a balancing act with micro-organisms.Mucosal Immunol. 2014;7:455–66. [DOI] [PubMed]
van de Pavert SA, Mebius RE. New insights into the development of lymphoid tissues.Nat Rev Immunol. 2010;10:664–74. [DOI] [PubMed]
Krause R, Ogongo P, Tezera L, Ahmed M, Mbano I, Chambers M, et al. B cell heterogeneity in human tuberculosis highlights compartment-specific phenotype and functional roles.Commun Biol. 2024;7:584. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Calabrò A, Yamazaki S, Ferlazzo G, Campana S. The Antigen Presenting Capabilities of Group 3 Innate Lymphoid Cells: Insights Into Immunogenic or Tolerogenic Outcomes for T Cells.Eur J Immunol. 2025;55:e70103. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Marin ND, Dunlap MD, Kaushal D, Khader SA. Friend or Foe: The Protective and Pathological Roles of Inducible Bronchus-Associated Lymphoid Tissue in Pulmonary Diseases.J Immunol. 2019;202:2519–26. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Barone F, Gardner DH, Nayar S, Steinthal N, Buckley CD, Luther SA. Stromal Fibroblasts in Tertiary Lymphoid Structures: A Novel Target in Chronic Inflammation.Front Immunol. 2016;7:477. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Schumacher TN, Thommen DS. Tertiary lymphoid structures in cancer.Science. 2022;375:eabf9419. [DOI] [PubMed]
Krimpenfort LT, Degn SE, Heesters BA. The follicular dendritic cell: At the germinal center of autoimmunity?Cell Rep. 2024;43:113869. [DOI] [PubMed]
Adachi Y, Onodera T, Yamada Y, Daio R, Tsuiji M, Inoue T, et al. Distinct germinal center selection at local sites shapes memory B cell response to viral escape.J Exp Med. 2015;212:1709–23. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Guillaume SM, Foster WS, San Martín Molina I, Watson EM, Innocentin S, Kennedy GM, et al. Lung B cells in ectopic germinal centers undergo affinity maturation.Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2025;122:e2416855122. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Ma ZM, Olstad KJ, Van Rompay KKA, Iyer SS, Miller CJ, Reader JR. Pulmonary lymphoid tissue induced after SARS-CoV-2 infection in rhesus macaques.Front Immunol. 2025;16:1533050. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Zhao R, Gao D. Innate Immunity and Tertiary Lymphoid Structures.Immunol Rev. 2025;332:e70052. [DOI] [PubMed]
Nayar S, Pontarini E, Campos J, Berardicurti O, Smith CG, Asam S, et al. Immunofibroblasts regulate LTα3 expression in tertiary lymphoid structures in a pathway dependent on ICOS/ICOSL interaction.Commun Biol. 2022;5:413. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Zhao L, Jin S, Wang S, Zhang Z, Wang X, Chen Z, et al. Tertiary lymphoid structures in diseases: immune mechanisms and therapeutic advances.Signal Transduct Target Ther. 2024;9:225. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Yang C, Cai YX, Wang ZF, Tian SF, Li ZQ. Tertiary lymphoid structures in the central nervous system.Trends Mol Med. 2025;31:509–21. [DOI] [PubMed]
Dutt TS, Krause R, Hertz D, Henao-Tamayo M, Leslie A, Schneider B. B cells and iBALT in TB immunity & pathogenesis.Front Immunol. 2026;17:1743572. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Slight SR, Rangel-Moreno J, Gopal R, Lin Y, Fallert Junecko BA, Mehra S, et al. CXCR5⁺ T helper cells mediate protective immunity against tuberculosis.J Clin Invest. 2013;123:712–26. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Ulrichs T, Kosmiadi GA, Trusov V, Jörg S, Pradl L, Titukhina M, et al. Human tuberculous granulomas induce peripheral lymphoid follicle-like structures to orchestrate local host defence in the lung.J Pathol. 2004;204:217–28. [DOI] [PubMed]
Gideon HP, Hughes TK, Tzouanas CN, Wadsworth MH 2nd, Tu AA, Gierahn TM, et al. Multimodal profiling of lung granulomas in macaques reveals cellular correlates of tuberculosis control.Immunity. 2022;55:827–46.e10. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Swanson RV, Gupta A, Foreman TW, Lu L, Choreno-Parra JA, Mbandi SK, et al. Antigen-specific B cells direct T follicular-like helper cells into lymphoid follicles to mediate Mycobacterium tuberculosis control.Nat Immunol. 2023;24:855–68. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Ganatra SR, Bucşan AN, Alvarez X, Kumar S, Chatterjee A, Quezada M, et al. Antiretroviral therapy does not reduce tuberculosis reactivation in a tuberculosis-HIV coinfection model.J Clin Invest. 2020;130:5171–9. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Koyuncu D, Tavolara T, Gatti DM, Gower AC, Ginese ML, Kramnik I, et al. B cells in perivascular and peribronchiolar granuloma-associated lymphoid tissue and B-cell signatures identify asymptomatic Mycobacterium tuberculosis lung infection in Diversity Outbred mice.Infect Immun. 2024;92:e0026323. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Griffiths KL, Ahmed M, Das S, Gopal R, Horne W, Connell TD, et al. Targeting dendritic cells to accelerate T-cell activation overcomes a bottleneck in tuberculosis vaccine efficacy.Nat Commun. 2016;7:13894. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Khader SA, Gopal R. IL-17 in protective immunity to intracellular pathogens.Virulence. 2010;1:423–7. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Khader SA, Bell GK, Pearl JE, Fountain JJ, Rangel-Moreno J, Cilley GE, et al. IL-23 and IL-17 in the establishment of protective pulmonary CD4+ T cell responses after vaccination and during Mycobacterium tuberculosis challenge.Nat Immunol. 2007;8:369–77. [DOI] [PubMed]
Nagatake T, Suzuki H, Hirata SI, Matsumoto N, Wada Y, Morimoto S, et al. Immunological association of inducible bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue organogenesis in Ag85B-rHPIV2 vaccine-induced anti-tuberculosis mucosal immune responses in mice.Int Immunol. 2018;30:471–81. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Counoupas C, Ferrell KC, Ashhurst A, Bhattacharyya ND, Nagalingam G, Stewart EL, et al. Mucosal delivery of a multistage subunit vaccine promotes development of lung-resident memory T cells and affords interleukin-17-dependent protection against pulmonary tuberculosis.NPJ Vaccines. 2020;5:105. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Kaushal D, Foreman TW, Gautam US, Alvarez X, Adekambi T, Rangel-Moreno J, et al. Mucosal vaccination with attenuated Mycobacterium tuberculosis induces strong central memory responses and protects against tuberculosis.Nat Commun. 2015;6:8533. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Singh DK, Ahmed M, Akter S, Shivanna V, Bucşan AN, Mishra A, et al. Prevention of tuberculosis in cynomolgus macaques by an attenuated Mycobacterium tuberculosis vaccine candidate.Nat Commun. 2025;16:1957. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Calvanese AL, Cecconi V, Stäheli S, Schnepf D, Nater M, Pereira P, et al. Sustained innate interferon is an essential inducer of tertiary lymphoid structures.Eur J Immunol. 2024;54:e2451207. [DOI] [PubMed]
Chen Y, Xiao Y, Zhang T, Wang X. The life cycle of tertiary lymphoid structures in pancreatic cancer-a window of opportunity for immunotherapy.Front Immunol. 2026;17:1784463. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Guillaume SM, Beccaria CG, Iannacone M, Linterman MA. Tertiary Lymphoid Structures Across Organs: Context, Composition, and Clinical Levers.Immunol Rev. 2025;335:e70063. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Soldevilla P, Vilaplana C, Cardona PJ. Mouse models for mycobacterium tuberculosis pathogenesis: show and do not tell.Pathogens. 2022;12:49. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Botelho FM, Rangel-Moreno J, Fritz D, Randall TD, Xing Z, Richards CD. Pulmonary expression of oncostatin M (OSM) promotes inducible BALT formation independently of IL-6, despite a role for IL-6 in OSM-driven pulmonary inflammation.J Immunol. 2013;191:1453–64. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Wang S, Wang H, Li C, Liu B, He S, Tu C. Tertiary lymphoid structures in cancer: immune mechanisms and clinical implications.MedComm (2020). 2024;5:e489. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Chaurio RA, Anadon CM, Tara Costich TL, Payne KK, Biswas S, Harro CM, et al. TGF-β-mediated silencing of genomic organizer SATB1 promotes Tfh cell differentiation and formation of intra-tumoral tertiary lymphoid structures.Immunity. 2022;55:115–28.e9. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Shikhagaie MM, Björklund AK, Mjösberg J, Erjefält JS, Cornelissen AS 5, Ros XR, et al. Neuropilin-1 Is Expressed on Lymphoid Tissue Residing LTi-like Group 3 Innate Lymphoid Cells and Associated with Ectopic Lymphoid Aggregates.Cell Rep. 2017;18:1761–73. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Seillet C, Arvell EH, Lacey D, Stutz MD, Pellegrini M, Whitehead L, et al. Constitutive overexpression of TNF in BPSM1 mice causes iBALT and bone marrow nodular lymphocytic hyperplasia.Immunol Cell Biol. 2019;97:29–38. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Fleige H, Ravens S, Moschovakis GL, Bölter J, Willenzon S, Sutter G, et al. IL-17-induced CXCL12 recruits B cells and induces follicle formation in BALT in the absence of differentiated FDCs.J Exp Med. 2014;211:643–51. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Rangel-Moreno J, Moyron-Quiroz JE, Hartson L, Kusser K, Randall TD. Pulmonary expression of CXC chemokine ligand 13, CC chemokine ligand 19, and CC chemokine ligand 21 is essential for local immunity to influenza.Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007;104:10577–82. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Rangel-Moreno J, Carragher DM, de la Luz Garcia-Hernandez M, Hwang JY, Kusser K, Hartson L, et al. The development of inducible bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue depends on IL-17.Nat Immunol. 2011;12:639–46. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Barone F, Nayar S, Campos J, Cloake T, Withers DR, Toellner KM, et al. IL-22 regulates lymphoid chemokine production and assembly of tertiary lymphoid organs.Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2015;112:11024–9. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Foo SY, Zhang V, Lalwani A, Lynch JP, Zhuang A, Lam CE, et al. Regulatory T cells prevent inducible BALT formation by dampening neutrophilic inflammation.J Immunol. 2015;194:4567–76. [DOI] [PubMed]
Kernodle DS. SigH, antioxidants, and the pathogenesis of pulmonary tuberculosis.J Infect Dis. 2012;205:1186–8. [DOI] [PubMed]
Darwin KH, Ehrt S, Gutierrez-Ramos JC, Weich N, Nathan CF. The proteasome of Mycobacterium tuberculosis is required for resistance to nitric oxide.Science. 2003;302:1963–6. [DOI] [PubMed]
Rustad TR, Harrell MI, Liao R, Sherman DR. The enduring hypoxic response of Mycobacterium tuberculosis.PLoS One. 2008;3:e1502. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Rohde KH, Abramovitch RB, Russell DG. Mycobacterium tuberculosis invasion of macrophages: linking bacterial gene expression to environmental cues.Cell Host Microbe. 2007;2:352–64. [DOI] [PubMed]
Dutta NK, Mehra S, Kaushal D. A Mycobacterium tuberculosis sigma factor network responds to cell-envelope damage by the promising anti-mycobacterial thioridazine.PLoS One. 2010;5:e10069. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Dunlap MD, Prince OA, Rangel-Moreno J, Thomas KA, Scordo JM, Torrelles JB, et al. Formation of Lung Inducible Bronchus Associated Lymphoid Tissue Is Regulated by Mycobacterium tuberculosis Expressed Determinants.Front Immunol. 2020;11:1325. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Bates MA, Brandenberger C, Langohr I, Kumagai K, Harkema JR, Holian A, et al. Silica Triggers Inflammation and Ectopic Lymphoid Neogenesis in the Lungs in Parallel with Accelerated Onset of Systemic Autoimmunity and Glomerulonephritis in the Lupus-Prone NZBWF1 Mouse.PLoS One. 2015;10:e0125481. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Rangel-Moreno J, Hartson L, Navarro C, Gaxiola M, Selman M, Randall TD. Inducible bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue (iBALT) in patients with pulmonary complications of rheumatoid arthritis.J Clin Invest. 2006;116:3183–94. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Elliot JG, Jensen CM, Mutavdzic S, Lamb JP, Carroll NG, James AL. Aggregations of lymphoid cells in the airways of nonsmokers, smokers, and subjects with asthma.Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2004;169:712–8. [DOI] [PubMed]
Slavin RG, Gleich GJ, Hutcheson PS, Kephart GM, Knutsen AP, Tsai CC. Localization of IgE to lung germinal lymphoid follicles in a patient with allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis.J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1992;90:1006–8. [DOI] [PubMed]
Makrufardi F, Chuang HC, Suk CW, Lin YC, Rusmawatiningtyas D, Murni IK, et al. Particulate matter deposition and its impact on tuberculosis severity: A cross-sectional study in Taipei.Sci Total Environ. 2024;924:171534. [DOI] [PubMed]
Zhang Y, Li L, Sheng ZK, Rao YF, Zhu X, Pang Y, et al. Increased Tertiary Lymphoid Structures are Associated with Exaggerated Lung Tissue Damage in Smokers with Pulmonary Tuberculosis.Biomed Environ Sci. 2025;38:810–8. [DOI] [PubMed]
Tejero JD, Armand NC, Finn CM, Dhume K, Strutt TM, Chai KX, et al. Cigarette smoke extract acts directly on CD4 T cells to enhance Th1 polarization and reduce memory potential.Cell Immunol. 2018;331:121–9. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Weill JC, Reynaud CA. IgM memory B cells: specific effectors of innate-like and adaptive responses.Curr Opin Immunol. 2020;63:1–6. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Mbano IM, Liu N, Wadsworth MH 2nd, Chambers MJ, Mpotje T, Asowata OE, et al. Single-cell and spatial profiling highlights TB-induced myofibroblasts as drivers of lung pathology.J Exp Med. 2026;223:e20251067. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Morse C, Tabib T, Sembrat J, Buschur KL, Bittar HT, Valenzi E, et al. Proliferating SPP1/MERTK-expressing macrophages in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis.Eur Respir J. 2019;54:1802441. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Summers B, Kim K, Trivedi A, Lu TM, Houghton S, Palmer-Johnson J, et al. Mice with lymphatic dysfunction develop pathogenic lung tertiary lymphoid organs that model an autoimmune emphysema phenotype of COPD.Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2025;328:L1–4. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Shen CY, Hsieh SC, Yu CL, Wang JY, Lee LN, Yu CJ. Autoantibody prevalence in active tuberculosis: reactive or pathognomonic?BMJ Open. 2013;3:e002665. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Siddharthan T, Gupte A, Barnes PJ. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Endotypes in Low- and Middle-Income Country Settings: Precision Medicine for All.Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2020;202:171–2. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Jiang M, Pang N, Wang J, Li Z, Xu D, Jing J, et al. Characteristics of Serum Autoantibody Repertoire and Immune Subgroup Variation of Tuberculosis-Associated Obstructive Pulmonary Disease.Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis. 2023;18:2867–86. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Kang N, Ji Z, Li Y, Gao J, Wu X, Zhang X, et al. Metabolite-derived damage-associated molecular patterns in immunological diseases.FEBS J. 2024;291:2051–67. [DOI] [PubMed]
Dorhoi A, Kaufmann SH. Perspectives on host adaptation in response to Mycobacterium tuberculosis: modulation of inflammation.Semin Immunol. 2014;26:533–42. [DOI] [PubMed]
Wangoo A, Sparer T, Brown IN, Snewin VA, Janssen R, Thole J, et al. Contribution of Th1 and Th2 cells to protection and pathology in experimental models of granulomatous lung disease.J Immunol. 2001;166:3432–9. [DOI] [PubMed]
Müller KM, Jaunin F, Masouyé I, Saurat JH, Hauser C. Th2 cells mediate IL-4-dependent local tissue inflammation.J Immunol. 1993;150:5576–84. [PubMed]
Mazzarella G, Bianco A, Perna F, D’Auria D, Grella E, Moscariello E, et al. T lymphocyte phenotypic profile in lung segments affected by cavitary and non-cavitary tuberculosis.Clin Exp Immunol. 2003;132:283–8. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Ardain A, Domingo-Gonzalez R, Das S, Kazer SW, Howard NC, Singh A, et al. Group 3 innate lymphoid cells mediate early protective immunity against tuberculosis.Nature. 2019;570:528–32. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Liu YH, Chen HL, Xu BQ, Wei K, Ying XY. A preliminary study on the immune responses of HPV16-E7 by combined intranasal immunization with lymphotoxin.Ginekol Pol. 2020;91:301–7. [DOI] [PubMed]
Walker KB, Brennan MJ, Ho MM, Eskola J, Thiry G, Sadoff J, et al. The second Geneva Consensus: Recommendations for novel live TB vaccines.Vaccine. 2010;28:2259–70. [DOI] [PubMed]
Swain SD, Meissner N, Han S, Harmsen A. Pneumocystis infection in an immunocompetent host can promote collateral sensitization to respiratory antigens.Infect Immun. 2011;79:1905–14. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Navarro-Flores A, Fernandez-Chinguel JE, Pacheco-Barrios N, Soriano-Moreno DR, Pacheco-Barrios K. Global morbidity and mortality of central nervous system tuberculosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis.J Neurol. 2022;269:3482–94. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Rock RB, Olin M, Baker CA, Molitor TW, Peterson PK. Central nervous system tuberculosis: pathogenesis and clinical aspects.Clin Microbiol Rev. 2008;21:243–61. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Leonard JM. Central nervous system tuberculosis. In: Schlossberg D, editor. Tuberculosis and Nontuberculous Mycobacterial Infections, Seventh Edition. 2017. pp. 331–41.
Zaharie SD, Franken DJ, van der Kuip M, van Elsland S, de Bakker BS, Hagoort J, et al. The immunological architecture of granulomatous inflammation in central nervous system tuberculosis.Tuberculosis (Edinb). 2020;125:102016. [DOI] [PubMed]
Ramachandran M, Vaccaro A, van de Walle T, Georganaki M, Lugano R, Vemuri K, et al. Tailoring vascular phenotype through AAV therapy promotes anti-tumor immunity in glioma.Cancer Cell. 2023;41:1134–51.e10. [DOI] [PubMed]
Matsubara S, Seki M, Suzuki S, Komori T, Takamori M. Tertiary lymphoid organs in the inflammatory myopathy associated with PD-1 inhibitors.J Immunother Cancer. 2019;7:256. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Ponce R. Adverse consequences of immunostimulation.J Immunotoxicol. 2008;5:33–41. [DOI] [PubMed]
Huang Y, Chen Y, Zhou S, Chen L, Wang J, Pei Y, et al. Dual-mechanism based CTLs infiltration enhancement initiated by Nano-sapper potentiates immunotherapy against immune-excluded tumors.Nat Commun. 2020;11:622. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Ahidjo BA, Maiga MC, Ihms EA, Maiga M, Ordonez AA, Cheung LS, et al. The antifibrotic drug pirfenidone promotes pulmonary cavitation and drug resistance in a mouse model of chronic tuberculosis.JCI Insight. 2016;1:e86017. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Krachunov II, Ivanov YY. Reactivation of tuberculosis in patient treated with the antifibrotic drug nintedanib.Int J Mycobacteriol. 2022;11:454–6. [DOI] [PubMed]
Zhu M, Yang H, Lu Y, Yang H, Tang Y, Li L, et al. Cardiac ectopic lymphoid follicle formation in viral myocarditis involving the regulation of podoplanin in Th17 cell differentiation.FASEB J. 2021;35:e21975. [DOI] [PubMed]
Gatumu MK, Skarstein K, Papandile A, Browning JL, Fava RA, Bolstad AI. Blockade of lymphotoxin-beta receptor signaling reduces aspects of Sjögren’s syndrome in salivary glands of non-obese diabetic mice.Arthritis Res Ther. 2009;11:R24. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Srivastava B, Conlon T, Mitula E, Sarker R, Yildirim A. Developing Oxysterol Inhibitors as a Novel Therapeutic Target for iBALT Driven Chronic Pulmonary Diseases.Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2019;199:A3777. [DOI]
