Exploration of Immunology

Table 3. Anti-cancer effects of genistein.

Mechanism	Cancer type	Study type	References
Cell cycle arrest (G2/M or G1/S) via cyclin/CDK (cyclin-dependent kinases) downregulation	Breast, prostate, colon	In vitro, in vivo	[1, 53]
Apoptosis induction (caspase activation, Bcl-2 inhibition)	Breast, pancreatic, leukemia	In vitro, in vivo	[11, 12]
Anti-angiogenesis (VEGF inhibition)	Breast, lung	In vitro, in vivo	[13]
Suppression of metastasis (MMPs, EMT inhibition)	Prostate	In vitro	[5, 16]
Tyrosine kinase inhibition (EGFR, PDGFR)	Pancreatic, prostate	In vitro, in vivo	[2, 9]
Epigenetic regulation (DNA methylation, miRNA modulation)	Breast, prostate	In vitro	[43, 44]
Anti-inflammatory (NF-κB, MAPK suppression)	Colorectal, liver	In vitro	[2]

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EGFR: epidermal growth factor receptor; EMT: epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition; MAPK: mitogen-activated protein kinase; MMPs: matrix metalloproteinases; NF-κB: nuclear factor-kappa B; PDGFR: platelet-derived growth factor receptor; VEGF: vascular endothelial growth factor.

Declarations

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge the use of OpenAI’s ChatGPT as an assistive tool for English language improvement and for conceptual support in preparing schematic figure layouts. All scientific content, interpretations, and final figures were critically reviewed, edited, and approved by the authors.

The authors gratefully acknowledge the support from the Amity Institute of Health Allied Sciences, Amity University, Uttar Pradesh, for encouraging the study and for providing infrastructural and administrative support. The authors are also thankful to the South African Technology Innovation Agency for providing time, resources, and infrastructure to do this publication.

Author contributions

ST: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. MGM: Validation, Writing—review & editing, Supervision. Both authors read and approved the submitted version.

Conflicts of interest

Both authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval

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