Exploration of Immunology

Table 1. Comparison of key properties, applications, and clinical translation status of major classes of immuno-materials.

Type of immuno-materials	Key properties	Main applications	Advantages	Current limits	Clinical translation stage
Peptide-based hydrogel	Self-assembly, biocompatibility, controlled release	Immunotherapy, tissue engineering	High specificity, localized release, biocompatibility	Understanding long-term mechanisms	Mainly pre-clinical (some in Phase I/II trials)
Biomimetic biomaterials	Replicate structure, specific interaction	Immune modulators, scaffolds	Precise cell-immune targeting	Complexity of synthesis and control	Pre-clinical/Early clinical research
Functionalized nanoparticles	Modified surfaces, molecular targeting	Vaccines, therapeutic delivery	Modulatory, stability, and immune efficacy	Potential toxicities and rapid clearance	Clinical use (e.g., mRNA vaccines) & Phase II/III

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Author contributions

MT, AF, FP: Conceptualization, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. AP, RR, FI, GP: Investigation, Formal analysis, Writing—review & editing. All authors read and approved the submitted version.

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The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

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