Exploration of Immunology

Table 1. Sex-bias and dominant immune mechanisms in autoimmune diseases.

Autoimmune disease	Sex predominance	Female:Male ratio	Dominant immune response	References
SLE	Female	8:1	Humoral/autoantibody-mediated	[16–20]
SS	Female	19:1	Humoral/autoantibody-mediated	[16–20]
SSc	Female	Not specified (female-biased)	Humoral/mixed	[19]
RA	Female	2–3:1	Humoral and T-cell-mediated	[16–20]
MG	Female	3:1	Humoral/autoantibody-mediated	[16–20]
MS	Female	2–3:1	T-cell mediated (with humoral contribution)	[16–20]
HT	Female	8–15:1	Humoral/autoantibody-mediated	[16, 24]
T1DM	Male	Not specified	T-cell mediated	[20]
AS	Male	1:2–3: most commonly, but ranges from 1:2 to 1:10 or higher in some populations	T-cell mediated	[16, 25, 26]
UC	Male	3.6:1	T-cell mediated	[16, 23]

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SLE: systemic lupus erythematosus; SS: Sjögren’s syndrome; SSc: systemic sclerosis; RA: rheumatoid arthritis; MG: myasthenia gravis; MS: multiple sclerosis; HT: Hashimoto’s thyroiditis; T1DM: type 1 diabetes mellitus; AS: ankylosing spondylitis; UC: ulcerative colitis.

Declarations

Author contributions

AC: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. GA: Writing—review & editing. AA: Writing—review & editing. RZ: Investigation, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. GC: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing, Supervision. All authors read and approved the submitted version.

Conflicts of interest

Giuseppina Candore, who is the Editorial Board Member of Exploration of Immunology, had no involvement in the decision-making or review process of this manuscript. The other authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

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