Different types of nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems used for vaccines
| Nanoparticle type | Composition | Mechanism of action | Advantages | Examples/Applications | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| LNPs | Lipids (e.g., phospholipids, PEG) | Encapsulate and deliver m-RNA to cells; LNPs fuse with cell membranes to release the m-RNA into the cytoplasm | Protect m-RNA, ensure targeted delivery, biocompatible, scalable | Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna COVID-19 vaccines | [113] |
| Polymeric nanoparticles | Biodegradable polymers (PLGA, PLA) | Controlled release of antigens or genetic material; degradation triggers antigen release and immune response | Biodegradability, controlled release, high stability | Vaccines for TB and influenza (research stage) | [112, 114] |
| Liposomes | Phospholipid bilayer vesicles | Encapsulate antigens or adjuvants; merge with host cell membranes to deliver the payload intracellularly | Biocompatible, customizable, can co-deliver drugs and antigens | Virosome-based vaccines, e.g., Epaxal® (Hep A) | [115] |
| Inorganic nanoparticles | Gold, silica, carbon nanotubes | Serve as carriers or adjuvants; enhance the immune response by targeted antigen delivery or stimulating immune cells | High stability, strong immune activation, tunable size | Gold nanoparticles in cancer vaccines (preclinical) | [116] |
| Protein-based nanoparticles | Viral capsids, ferritin, or albumin | Self-assemble into nanoscale structures; mimic natural pathogens to enhance immunogenicity | High immunogenicity, biocompatibility, scalable | Virus-like particles (e.g., Gardasil® for HPV) | [117] |
| Hybrid nanoparticles | Combination of materials (lipid-polymer) | Integrate the benefits of multiple types of nanoparticles, e.g., stability and targeting | Versatility, enhanced stability, and functionality | Cancer and viral vaccines (preclinical) | [118] |
LNPs: lipid nanoparticles; m-RNA: messenger RNA; PEG: polyethylene glycol; PLGA: poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid); PLA: polylactic acid; TB: tuberculosis; HPV: human papillomavirus
AK and FA: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. BKS: Formal analysis. AAAA, YM, and VM: Validation, Visualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Supervision, Writing—review & editing.
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
Not applicable.
Not applicable.
Not applicable.
All datasets analyzed for this study are included in the manuscript.
Not applicable.
© The Author(s) 2025.
Open Exploration maintains a neutral stance on jurisdictional claims in published institutional affiliations and maps. All opinions expressed in this article are the personal views of the author(s) and do not represent the stance of the editorial team or the publisher.