One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) test. P-value < 0.05 is considered significant. BMI: body mass index; FBG: fasting blood glucose; HbA1c: hemoglobin A1C; SNP: single nucleotide polymorphism; T2DM: type 2 diabetes mellitus.
Declarations
Acknowledgments
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to Prof. Gasim Badri, President of Ahfad University for Women, and Dr. Hanan Babiker Eltahir for their generous assistance and support in acquiring the study reagents and materials. Additionally, we extend our thanks to the staff at the Jabir Abu Eliz Diabetic Centre in Khartoum, Sudan, and the team at the Molecular and Parasitology Laboratory within the Institute of Endemic Diseases at the University of Khartoum.
Author contributions
HBE: Conceptualization, Data curation, Methodology, Investigation, Writing—original draft, Formal analysis, Visualization. EMA: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation. AM: Writing—review & editing. AOM: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing—review & editing, Supervision. All authors read and approved the submitted version.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.
Ethical approval
This study was approved by the Ethical Research Committee of the Board of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Khartoum, Khartoum State, Sudan (December 4th, 2013), and was carried out in compliance with the Declaration of Helsinki.
Consent to participate
Informed written consent was obtained from all subjects before participating in the study.
Consent to publication
Not applicable.
Availability of data and materials
The datasets analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Funding
This study was supported by Ahfad University for Women and partially funded by the Ministry of Higher Education. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Open Exploration maintains a neutral stance on jurisdictional claims in published institutional affiliations and maps. All opinions expressed in this article are the personal views of the author(s) and do not represent the stance of the editorial team or the publisher.
References
Zheng Y, Ley SH, Hu FB. Global aetiology and epidemiology of type 2 diabetes mellitus and its complications.Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2017;14:88–98. [DOI] [PubMed]
Lin X, Xu Y, Pan X, Xu J, Ding Y, Sun X, et al. Global, regional, and national burden and trend of diabetes in 195 countries and territories: an analysis from 1990 to 2025.Sci Rep. 2020;10:14790. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Tomic D, Shaw JE, Magliano DJ. The burden and risks of emerging complications of diabetes mellitus.Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2022;18:525–39. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Cho NH, Shaw JE, Karuranga S, Huang Y, da Rocha Fernandes JD, Ohlrogge AW, et al. IDF Diabetes Atlas: Global estimates of diabetes prevalence for 2017 and projections for 2045.Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2018;138:271–81. [DOI] [PubMed]
Kalyani RR, Neumiller JJ, Maruthur NM, Wexler DJ. Diagnosis and Treatment of Type 2 Diabetes in Adults.JAMA. 2025;334:984–1002. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Yun JS, Jung SH, Shivakumar M, Xiao B, Khera AV, Won HH, et al. Polygenic risk for type 2 diabetes, lifestyle, metabolic health, and cardiovascular disease: a prospective UK Biobank study.Cardiovasc Diabetol. 2022;21:131. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Mannar V, Boro H, Patel D, Agstam S, Dalvi M, Bundela V. Epigenetics of the Pathogenesis and Complications of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus.Eur Endocrinol. 2023;19:46–53. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Bazzazzadehgan S, Shariat-Madar Z, Mahdi F. Distinct Roles of Common Genetic Variants and Their Contributions to Diabetes: MODY and Uncontrolled T2DM.Biomolecules. 2025;15:414. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Cui M, Gao Y, Zhao Y, Pang H, Chen L, Wang Z, et al. Association between Adiponectin Gene Polymorphism and Environmental Risk Factors of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus among the Chinese Population in Hohhot.BioMed Res Int. 2020;2020:6383906. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Wheeler E, Barroso I. Genome-wide association studies and type 2 diabetes.Brief Funct Genom. 2011;10:52–60. [DOI] [PubMed]
Mahajan A, Taliun D, Thurner M, Robertson NR, Torres JM, Rayner NW, et al. Fine-mapping type 2 diabetes loci to single-variant resolution using high-density imputation and islet-specific epigenome maps.Nat Genet. 2018;50:1505–13. [DOI]
Howlader M, Sultana MI, Akter F, Hossain MM. Adiponectin gene polymorphisms associated with diabetes mellitus: A descriptive review.Heliyon. 2021;7:e07851. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Begum M, Choubey M, Tirumalasetty MB, Arbee S, Mohib MM, Wahiduzzaman M, et al. Adiponectin: A Promising Target for the Treatment of Diabetes and Its Complications.Life. 2023;13:2213. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Khoramipour K, Chamari K, Hekmatikar AA, Ziyaiyan A, Taherkhani S, Elguindy NM, et al. Adiponectin: Structure, Physiological Functions, Role in Diseases, and Effects of Nutrition.Nutrients. 2021;13:1180. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Tao C, Sifuentes A, Holland WL. Regulation of glucose and lipid homeostasis by adiponectin: Effects on hepatocytes, pancreatic β cells and adipocytes.Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2014;28:43–58. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Alimi M, Goodarzi MT, Nekoei M. Association of ADIPOQ rs266729 and rs1501299 gene polymorphisms and circulating adiponectin level with the risk of type 2 diabetes in a population of Iran: a case-control study.J Diabetes Metab Disord. 2021;20:87–93. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Guo Z, Xia Z, Yuen VG, McNeill JH. Cardiac expression of adiponectin and its receptors in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats.Metabolism. 2007;56:1363–71. [DOI] [PubMed]
El-Shal AS, Zidan HE, Rashad NM. Adiponectin gene polymorphisms in Egyptian type 2 diabetes mellitus patients with and without diabetic nephropathy.Mol Biol Rep. 2014;41:2287–98. [DOI] [PubMed]
Amrita J, Mahajan M, Bhanwer AJS, Matharoo K. Association of AdipoQ gene variation (rs1501299) and oxidative stress with cardiovascular disease in North West Indian population of Punjabi women.J Med Biochem. 2021;40:49–59. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Han LY, Wu QH, Jiao ML, Hao YH, Liang LB, Gao LJ, et al. Associations between single-nucleotide polymorphisms (+45T>G, +276G>T, −11377C>G, −11391G>A) of adiponectin gene and type 2 diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Diabetologia. 2011;54:2303–14. [DOI] [PubMed]
American Diabetes Association Professional Practice Committee for Diabetes. 2. Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes: Standards of Care in Diabetes—2026.Diabetes Care. 2026;49:S27–49. [DOI]
Arifin WN. Introduction to sample size calculation.Educ Med J. 2013;5:89–96. [DOI]
Karami A, Baradaran A. Comparative evaluation of three different methods for HbA1c measurement with High-performance liquid chromatography in diabetic patients.Adv Biomed Res. 2014;3:94. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Rutkowski JM, Scherer PE. Isolation and Quantitation of Adiponectin Higher Order Complexes.Methods Enzymol. 2014;537:243–59. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Ghatak S, Muthukumaran RB, Nachimuthu SK. A Simple Method of Genomic DNA Extraction from Human Samples for PCR-RFLP Analysis.J Biomol Tech. 2013;24:224–31. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Momin AA, Bankar MP, Bhoite GM. Association of Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms of Adiponectin Gene with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus, and Their Influence on Cardiovascular Risk Markers.Indian J Clin Biochem. 2016;32:53–60. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Ji ZY, Li HF, Lei Y, Rao YW, Tan ZX, Liu HJ, et al. Association of adiponectin gene polymorphisms with an elevated risk of diabetic peripheral neuropathy in type 2 diabetes patients.J Diabetes Complicat. 2015;29:887–92. [DOI] [PubMed]
Mohammadzadeh G, Zarghami N. Associations between single-nucleotide polymorphisms of the adiponectin gene, serum adiponectin levels and increased risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus in Iranian obese individuals.Scand J Clin Lab Invest. 2009:69:764–71. [DOI] [PubMed]
Hong X, Zhang X, You L, Li F, Lian H, Wang J, et al. Association between adiponectin and newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes in population with the clustering of obesity, dyslipidaemia and hypertension: a cross-sectional study.BMJ Open. 2023;13:e060377. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Abudalo R, Alqudah A, Qnais E, Athamneh RY, Oqal M, Alnajjar R. Interplay of adiponectin and resistin in type 2 diabetes: Implications for insulin resistance and atherosclerosis.Pharmacia. 2024;71:1–8. [DOI]
Frankenberg ADV, Reis AF, Gerchman F. Relationships between adiponectin levels, the metabolic syndrome, and type 2 diabetes: a literature review.Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2017;61:614–22. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Karbowska J, Kochan Z. Role of adiponectin in the regulation of carbohydrate and lipid metabolism.J Physiol Pharmacol. 2006;57:103–13. [PubMed]
Awazawa M, Ueki K, Inabe K, Yamauchi T, Kubota N, Kaneko K, et al. Adiponectin Enhances Insulin Sensitivity by Increasing Hepatic IRS-2 Expression via a Macrophage-Derived IL-6-Dependent Pathway.Cell Metab. 2011;13:401–12. [DOI] [PubMed]
Berg AH, Combs TP, Scherer PE. ACRP30/adiponectin: an adipokine regulating glucose and lipid metabolism.Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2002;13:84–9. [DOI] [PubMed]
Yang WS, Yang YC, Chen CL, Wu IL, Lu JY, Lu FH, et al. Adiponectin SNP276 is associated with obesity, the metabolic syndrome, and diabetes in the elderly.Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;86:509–13. [DOI] [PubMed]
Ramya K, Ayyappa KA, Ghosh S, Mohan V, Radha V. Genetic association of ADIPOQ gene variants with type 2 diabetes, obesity and serum adiponectin levels in south Indian population.Gene. 2013;532:253–62. [DOI] [PubMed]
Hara K, Boutin P, Mori Y, Tobe K, Dina C, Yasuda K, et al. Genetic Variation in the Gene Encoding Adiponectin Is Associated With an Increased Risk of Type 2 Diabetes in the Japanese Population.Diabetes. 2002;51:536–40. [DOI] [PubMed]
Farooq R, Majid S, Ahmad Bhat S, Amin S, Hayat Bhat M, Ahmad Wani H, et al. Association of adiponectin gene polymorphism with type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome.Transl Metab Syndr Res. 2018;1:39–47. [DOI]
Zacharova J, Chiasson JL, Laakso M; STOP-NIDDM Study Group. The Common Polymorphisms (Single Nucleotide Polymorphism [SNP] +45 and SNP +276) of the Adiponectin Gene Predict the Conversion From Impaired Glucose Tolerance to Type 2 Diabetes.Diabetes. 2005;54:893–9. [DOI] [PubMed]
Abd-Elbaky AE, M Abo-El Matty D. Adiponectin (+276 G/T), Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha (-308 G/A) and Interleukin-6 (-174 C/G) Genes Polymorphisms in Egyptian Type 2 Diabetic Patients.J Diabetes Metab. 2016;07:e07. [DOI]
