Exploration of Cardiology

Table 2. Causative fungi in fungal endocarditis

Fungus	Frequency (%)	Key clinical features	Biofilm association	References
Candida spp.	50–60%	Large friable vegetations; embolic events; culture-positive (blood); persistent/relapsing fungemia	Yes (especially C. parapsilosis)	[1, 5, 21, 22]
- C. albicans	> 50% of Candida	Most common: high mortality (30–40%)	Yes	[5, 24]
- C. glabrata	4–20%	Intrinsic azole resistance; common in diabetes/older adults	Yes	[5, 6, 77]
- C. parapsilosis	15–41%	Catheter-related neonatal/ICU settings	Yes (device linked)	[9, 21, 41]
- C. tropicalis	5–13%	Associated with malignancy	Moderate	[5, 21]
- C. auris	Emerging	Multidrug-resistant; colonizes lines; persistent fungemia	Yes	[9, 26, 79]
Aspergillus spp.	20–30%	Culture-negative (blood); invades myocardium; abscesses; high mortality (> 80%)	Yes	[1, 5, 15, 29]
- A. fumigatus	Most common	Immunocompromised hosts (64%), diagnosed via PCR/galactomannan	Yes	[15]
Dimorphic fungi	< 5%	Endemic regions (e.g., U.S. Midwest), delayed diagnosis; Histoplasma (most common)	No	[13]
Rare fungi	< 5%	Fusarium (neutropenic hosts); Mucormycetes (diabetic/transplant); Trichosporon (echinocandin-resistant)	Variable	[15, 57, 59]

Return to article view

PCR: polymerase chain reaction; C. auris: Candida auris; C. parapsilosis: Candida parapsilosis; C. glabrata: Candida glabrata; C. albicans: Candida albicans; C. tropicalis: Candida tropicalis; A. fumigatus: Aspergillus fumigatus

Declarations

Acknowledgments

I would like to acknowledge Krupa Sara Thomas for her valuable assistance in reviewing and going through the manuscript.

Author contributions

SE: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. The author has read and approved the submitted version.

Conflicts of interest

The author declares that there are no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Funding

Not applicable.

Copyright

Publisher’s note

Open Exploration maintains a neutral stance on jurisdictional claims in published institutional affiliations and maps. All opinions expressed in this article are the personal views of the author(s) and do not represent the stance of the editorial team or the publisher.

References

Thompson GR 3rd, Jenks JD, Baddley JW, Lewis JS 2nd, Egger M, Schwartz IS, et al. Fungal Endocarditis: Pathophysiology, Epidemiology, Clinical Presentation, Diagnosis, and Management. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2023;36:e0001923. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Sharma S, Samantaray S, Kumar D, Meena DS, Chaudhary R, Jain V, et al. Prosthetic valve endocarditis due to Candida parapsilosis - a rare case report. Access Microbiol. 2023;5:acmi000462.v4. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Soriano A, Honore PM, Puerta-Alcalde P, Garcia-Vidal C, Pagotto A, Gonçalves-Bradley DC, et al. Invasive candidiasis: current clinical challenges and unmet needs in adult populations. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2023;78:1569–85. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Baracioli LM, Eulálio Filho WMN, Siciliano RF, Franci A, Marinaro G, Saretta R, et al. Fungal endocarditis after transcatheter aortic valve implantation complicated with pseudoaneurysm of the ascending aorta. J Cardiothorac Surg. 2024;19:623. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Meena DS, Kumar D, Agarwal M, Bohra GK, Choudhary R, Samantaray S, et al. Clinical features, diagnosis and treatment outcome of fungal endocarditis: A systematic review of reported cases. Mycoses. 2022;65:294–302. [DOI] [PubMed]

Mamtani S, Aljanabi NM, Gupta Rauniyar RP, Acharya A, Malik BH. Candida Endocarditis: A Review of the Pathogenesis, Morphology, Risk Factors, and Management of an Emerging and Serious Condition. Cureus. 2020;12:e6695. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Mori G, Gottardi M, Guffanti M, Castagna A, Lanzafame M. Treatment of Candida glabrata native valve endocarditis with rezafungin: a case report. JAC Antimicrob Resist. 2024;6:dlae042. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Wu W, Xu J, Ruan J, Tian B, Xuan N. Metagenomic next-generation sequencing identifies native valve Aspergillus fumigatus endocarditis with cerebral involvement: a case report. Front Cardiovasc Med. 2025;12:1487543. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Jamil Y, Akinleye A, Mirzaei M, Lempel M, Farhat K, Pan S. Candida endocarditis: Update on management considerations. World J Cardiol. 2023;15:469–78. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

10.

Data and Statistics on Candidemia [Internet]. CDC; 2024 [cited 2025 May 10]. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/candidiasis/data-research/facts-stats/index.html

11.

Huggins JP, Hohmann S, David MZ. Candida Infective Endocarditis: A Retrospective Study of Patient Characteristics and Risk Factors for Death in 703 United States Cases, 2015-2019. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2020;8:ofaa628. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

12.

Meyahnwi D, Ahmed A, Zinyandu T, Opoku I. A rising threat: epidemiologic trends in incidence, mortality, and cost of Candida endocarditis in the United States [Internet]. [Cited 2025 May 13]. Available from: https://scholar.bridgeporthospital.org/poster_presentations/64

13.

Kasule SN, Grant LM, Apolinario MA, Speiser LJ, Saling CF, Blair JE, et al. Endemic Fungal Infective Endocarditis Caused by Coccidioides, Blastomyces and Histoplasma Species in the United States. Cureus. 2024;16:e60285. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

14.

Andreas M, Burri H, Praz F, Soliman O, Badano L, Barreiro M, et al. Tricuspid valve disease and cardiac implantable electronic devices. Eur Heart J. 2024;45:346–65. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

15.

Caroselli C, Suardi LR, Besola L, Fiocco A, Colli A, Falcone M. Native-Valve Aspergillus Endocarditis: Case Report and Literature Review. Antibiotics (Basel). 2023;12:1190. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

16.

Foong KS, Sung A, Burnham JP, Kronen R, Lian Q, Salazar Zetina A, et al. Risk factors predicting Candida infective endocarditis in patients with candidemia. Med Mycol. 2020;58:593–9. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

17.

Labchuk A, Hamwi M, Han A, Khan M, Stone A. Fungal Endocarditis With Severe Vegetations of the Aortic Valve and Septic Emboli Secondary to Total Parenteral Nutrition. Cureus. 2022;14:e32357. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

18.

Poowanawittayakom N, Dutta A, Stock S, Touray S, Ellison RT 3rd, Levitz SM. Reemergence of Intravenous Drug Use as Risk Factor for Candidemia, Massachusetts, USA. Emerg Infect Dis. 2018;24:631–7. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

19.

Almuhammadi GA, Alzughaibi RA, Amer LA, Alzahrani TS. Challenges in Diagnosing and Treating Fungal Endocarditis: A Case Report of Recurrent Candida Endocarditis in a Hemodialysis Patient. J Saudi Heart Assoc. 2025;37:4. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

20.

Halavaara M, Anttila VJ, Järvinen A. Infective Endocarditis in People Who Inject Drugs-A 5-Year Follow-up: “I’ve Seen the Needle and the Damage Done”. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2025;12:ofaf057. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

21.

Mistiaen W. “Not much room for mushrooms” in the heart: knowns and unknowns of fungal infective endocarditis. Vessel Plus. 2024;8:1. [DOI]

22.

Taib R, Penny DJ. CHAPTER 55 - Infective Endocarditis. In: Anderson RH, Baker EJ, Penny DJ, Redington AN, Rigby ML, Wernovsky G, et al., editors. Paediatric Cardiology (Third Edition). Philadelphia: Churchill Livingstone; 2010. pp. 1135–46. [DOI]

23.

Ojha N, Dhamoon AS. Fungal endocarditis. In: StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025. [PubMed]

24.

Yuan SM. Fungal Endocarditis. Braz J Cardiovasc Surg. 2016;31:252–5. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

25.

Pappas PG, Kauffman CA, Andes DR, Clancy CJ, Marr KA, Ostrosky-Zeichner L, et al. Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Candidiasis: 2016 Update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;62:e1–50. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

26.

Sears D, Schwartz BS. Candida auris: An emerging multidrug-resistant pathogen. Int J Infect Dis. 2017;63:95–8. [DOI] [PubMed]

27.

Chowdhary A, Sharma C, Meis JF. Candida auris: A rapidly emerging cause of hospital-acquired multidrug-resistant fungal infections globally. PLoS Pathog. 2017;13:e1006290. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

28.

McHugh J, Saleh OA. Updates in Culture-Negative Endocarditis. Pathogens. 2023;12:1027. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

29.

Gopal K, Bhaskaran PN, Moni M, Shashindran N. Aspergillus endocarditis. Indian Heart J. 2024;76:240–6. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

30.

He S, Hang JP, Zhang L, Wang F, Zhang DC, Gong FH. A systematic review and meta-analysis of diagnostic accuracy of serum 1,3-β-D-glucan for invasive fungal infection: Focus on cutoff levels. J Microbiol Immunol Infect. 2015;48:351–61. [DOI] [PubMed]

31.

Pfeiffer CD, Fine JP, Safdar N. Diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis using a galactomannan assay: a meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;42:1417–27. [DOI] [PubMed]

32.

Lazarevic V, Gaïa N, Pham TT, de Lorenzi-Tognon M, Girard M, Mauffrey F, et al. Identification of causative agents of infective endocarditis by metagenomic next-generation sequencing of resected valves. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2025;15:1532257. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

33.

Sekar P, Johnson JR, Thurn JR, Drekonja DM, Morrison VA, Chandrashekhar Y, et al. Comparative Sensitivity of Transthoracic and Transesophageal Echocardiography in Diagnosis of Infective Endocarditis Among Veterans With Staphylococcus aureus Bacteremia. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2017;4:ofx035. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

34.

Saeedan MB, Wang TKM, Cremer P, Wahadat AR, Budde RPJ, Unai S, et al. Role of Cardiac CT in Infective Endocarditis: Current Evidence, Opportunities, and Challenges. Radiol Cardiothorac Imaging. 2021;3:e200378. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

35.

Mahmood M, Kendi AT, Ajmal S, Farid S, O’Horo JC, Chareonthaitawee P, et al. Meta-analysis of 18F-FDG PET/CT in the diagnosis of infective endocarditis. J Nucl Cardiol. 2019;26:922–35. [DOI] [PubMed]

36.

McHugh JW, Challener DW, Tabaja H. Change of Heart: Can Artificial Intelligence Transform Infective Endocarditis Management? Pathogens. 2025;14:371. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

37.

Iñigo M, Del Pozo JL. Fungal biofilms: From bench to bedside. Rev Esp Quimioter. 2018;31 Suppl 1:35–8. [PubMed] [PMC]

38.

Oberbach A, Schlichting N, Hagl C, Lehmann S, Kullnick Y, Friedrich M, et al. Four decades of experience of prosthetic valve endocarditis reflect a high variety of diverse pathogens. Cardiovasc Res. 2023;119:410–28. [DOI] [PubMed]

39.

Burban A, Słupik D, Reda A, Szczerba E, Grabowski M, Kołodzińska A. Novel Diagnostic Methods for Infective Endocarditis. Int J Mol Sci. 2024;25:1245. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

40.

Hong HL, Flurin L, Greenwood-Quaintance KE, Wolf MJ, Pritt BS, Norgan AP, et al. 16S rRNA Gene PCR/Sequencing of Heart Valves for Diagnosis of Infective Endocarditis in Routine Clinical Practice. J Clin Microbiol. 2023;61:e0034123. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

41.

Collins F, Wenlock RD, Curtis S, Hyde J, James PR. Fungal endocarditis after type A dissection, a positive outcome from Candida parapsilosis prosthetic aortic valve endocarditis and aortic graft infection: a testament to multidisciplinary practice. Clin Infect Pract. 2021;12:100106. [DOI]

42.

Fungal Biofilm-Related Diseases: Diagnosis, Treatment, and Emerging Challenges [Internet]. MJH Life Sciences^® - Infectious Disease News & Expert Insights; c2025 [cited 2025 May 17]. Available from: https://www.contagionlive.com/view/fungal-biofilm-related-diseases-diagnosis-treatment-and-emerging-challenges

43.

Clinical Criteria for Infective Endocarditis According to the 2023 Duke-International Society for Cardiovascular Infectious Disease [Internet]. Merck & Co., Inc.; c2025 [cited 2025 May 18]. Available from: https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/multimedia/table/clinical-criteria-for-infective-endocarditis-according-to-the-2023-duke-international-society-for-cardiovascular-infectious-disease

44.

Fowler VG, Durack DT, Selton-Suty C, Athan E, Bayer AS, Chamis AL, et al. The 2023 Duke-International Society for Cardiovascular Infectious Diseases Criteria for Infective Endocarditis: Updating the Modified Duke Criteria. Clin Infect Dis. 2023;77:518–26. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

45.

Delgado V, Ajmone Marsan N, de Waha S, Bonaros N, Brida M, Burri H, et al.; ESC Scientific Document Group. 2023 ESC Guidelines for the management of endocarditis. Eur Heart J. 2023;44:3948–4042. [DOI] [PubMed]

46.

Kumar R, Kirtana J, Kodan P, Y Ray, P Kumar, A Biswas. Culture-negative fungal endocarditis. Heart Mind. 2019;3:27–30. [DOI]

47.

van der Vaart TW, Bossuyt PMM, Durack DT, Baddour LM, Bayer AS, Durante-Mangoni E, et al. External Validation of the 2023 Duke-International Society for Cardiovascular Infectious Diseases Diagnostic Criteria for Infective Endocarditis. Clin Infect Dis. 2024;78:922–9. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

48.

Sahra S, Javed A, Jahangir A, Thind SK. Pharmacological options for Candida albicans Endocarditis at the roadblock with irrecoverable prosthetics and drug interactions: a case report and review of literature. BMC Infect Dis. 2023;23:304. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

49.

Sankar NP, Thakarar K, Rokas KE. Candida Infective Endocarditis During the Infectious Diseases and Substance Use Disorder Syndemic: A Six-Year Case Series. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2020;7:ofaa142. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

50.

Rivoisy C, Vena A, Schaeffer L, Charlier C, Fontanet A, Delahaye F, et al.; French Mycoses Study Group and Grupo de Apoyo al Manejo de las Endocarditis en España (GAMES). Prosthetic Valve Candida spp. Endocarditis: New Insights Into Long-term Prognosis-The ESCAPE Study. Clin Infect Dis. 2018;66:825–32. [DOI] [PubMed]

51.

Govindarajan A, Bistas KG, Ingold CJ, Patel P, Aboeed A. Fluconazole. In: StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025.

52.

Fluconazole (Rx) [Internet]. [Cited 2025 May 19]. Available from: https://reference.medscape.com/drug/diflucan-fluconazole-342587

53.

Sahadevan NV. Drug interactions of azole antifungals. J Skin Sex Transm Dis. 2021;5:50–4. [DOI]

54.

Berger FA, Monadian N, de Groot NMS, Santbergen B, van der Sijs H, Becker ML, et al. QTc prolongation during ciprofloxacin and fluconazole combination therapy: prevalence and associated risk factors. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2018;84:369–78. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

55.

Sienkiewicz BM, Łapiński Ł, Wiela-Hojeńska A. Comparison of clinical pharmacology of voriconazole and posaconazole. Contemp Oncol (Pozn). 2016;20:365–73. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

56.

Lewis JS 2nd, Wiederhold NP, Hakki M, Thompson GR 3rd. New Perspectives on Antimicrobial Agents: Isavuconazole. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2022;66:e0017722. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

57.

de Almeida Júnior JN, Hennequin C. Invasive Trichosporon Infection: a Systematic Review on a Re-emerging Fungal Pathogen. Front Microbiol. 2016;7:1629. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

58.

Oh TH, Shin SU, Kim SS, Kim SE, Kim UJ, Kang SJ, et al. Prosthetic valve endocarditis by Trichosporon mucoides: A case report and review of literature. Medicine (Baltimore). 2020;99:e22584. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

59.

Kelly M, Stevens R, Konecny P. Lomentospora prolificans endocarditis--case report and literature review. BMC Infect Dis. 2016;16:36. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

60.

Guzman-Cottrill JA, Zheng X, Chadwick EG. Fusarium solani endocarditis successfully treated with liposomal amphotericin B and voriconazole. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2004;23:1059–61. [DOI] [PubMed]

61.

Granok AB. Successful Treatment of Malassezia furfur Endocarditis. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2020;7:ofaa029. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

62.

Guo P, He Y, Fan R, Wu Z, Chen Y, Huang Y, et al. A case series of medically managed Candida parapsilosis complex prosthetic valve endocarditis. Ann Clin Microbiol Antimicrob. 2021;20:1. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

63.

Naguthevar S, Ravindra A, Kumar D, Meena DS, Bohra GK, Jain V, et al. Emerging trends in fungal endocarditis: clinical complexity, diagnostic challenges, and therapeutic implications - a case series and literature review. Ther Adv Infect Dis. 2024;11:20499361241293655. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

64.

Kang DH. Timing of surgery in infective endocarditis. Heart. 2015;101:1786–91. [DOI] [PubMed]

65.

Pettersson GB, Hussain ST. Current AATS guidelines on surgical treatment of infective endocarditis. Ann Cardiothorac Surg. 2019;8:630–44. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

66.

Beaumont AL, Mestre F, Decaux S, Bertin C, Duval X, Iung B, et al. Long-term Oral Suppressive Antimicrobial Therapy in Infective Endocarditis (SATIE Study): An Observational Study. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2024;11:ofae194. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

67.

Lemmet T, Bourne-Watrin M, Gerber V, Danion F, Ursenbach A, Hoellinger B, et al. Suppressive antibiotic therapy for infectious endocarditis. Infect Dis Now. 2024;54:104867. [DOI] [PubMed]

68.

Prasad Gourav KK, Mandal B, Mishra AK, Narayanan Nayanar VK. Successful medical management of fungal infective endocarditis post VSD closure. Ann Card Anaesth. 2021;24:95–8. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

69.

Cornely OA, Dupont H, Mikulska M, Rautemaa-Richardson R, Garcia-Vidal C, Thompson GR 3rd, et al. Rezafungin in special populations with candidaemia and/or invasive candidiasis. J Infect. 2025;90:106435. [DOI] [PubMed]

70.

Smith HL, Bensman TJ, Mishra S, Li X, Dixon CA, Sheikh J, et al. Regulatory Considerations in the Approval of Rezafungin (Rezzayo) for the Treatment of Candidemia and Invasive Candidiasis in Adults. J Infect Dis. 2024;230:505–13. [DOI] [PubMed]

71.

El Ayoubi LW, Allaw F, Moussa E, Kanj SS. Ibrexafungerp: A narrative overview. Curr Res Microb Sci. 2024;6:100245. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

72.

Singh S, Uppuluri P, Mamouei Z, Alqarihi A, Elhassan H, French S, et al. The NDV-3A vaccine protects mice from multidrug resistant Candida auris infection. PLoS Pathog. 2019;15:e1007460. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

73.

Lerche CJ, Schwartz F, Pries-Heje MM, Fosbøl EL, Iversen K, Jensen PØ, et al. Potential Advances of Adjunctive Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy in Infective Endocarditis. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2022;12:805964. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

74.

Justo JA, Bookstaver PB. Antibiotic lock therapy: review of technique and logistical challenges. Infect Drug Resist. 2014;7:343–63. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

75.

Aksoy F, Karakoc Parlayan HN, Oncu Kurutas G, Yilmaz G. Antimicrobial Lock Therapy: A Strategy for Managing Catheter-Related Bacteremia. Antibiotics (Basel). 2025;14:461. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

76.

Dhingra S, Buckey JC, Cramer RA. Hyperbaric Oxygen Reduces Aspergillus fumigatus Proliferation In Vitro and Influences In Vivo Disease Outcomes. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2018;62:e01953–17. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

77.

Li J, Brandalise D, Coste AT, Sanglard D, Lamoth F. Exploration of novel mechanisms of azole resistance in Candida auris. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2024;68:e0126524. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

78.

Hassan Y, Chew SY, Than LTL. Candida glabrata: Pathogenicity and Resistance Mechanisms for Adaptation and Survival. J Fungi (Basel). 2021;7:667. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

79.

Amann V, Kissmann AK, Firacative C, Rosenau F. Biofilm-Associated Candidiasis: Pathogenesis, Prevalence, Challenges and Therapeutic Options. Pharmaceuticals (Basel). 2025;18:460. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

80.

Chedraoui C, Fattouh N, El Hachem S, Younes M, Khalaf RA. Induction of Antifungal Tolerance Reveals Genetic and Phenotypic Changes in Candida glabrata. J Fungi (Basel). 2025;11:284. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

81.

Pasha AK, Lee JZ, Low SW, Desai H, Lee KS, Al Mohajer M. Fungal Endocarditis: Update on Diagnosis and Management. Am J Med. 2016;129:1037–43. [DOI] [PubMed]

82.

Koohsari P, Nakhaee A, Rahmanian M, Salahshour F, Parkhideh R, Larti F. Devastating fungal endocarditis involving ascending aorta in a patient with a history of aortic valve replacement: a case report. J Cardiothorac Surg. 2024;19:191. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

83.

Arnold CJ, Johnson M, Bayer AS, Bradley S, Giannitsioti E, Miró JM, et al. Candida infective endocarditis: an observational cohort study with a focus on therapy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2015;59:2365–73. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

84.

Siciliano RF, Gualandro DM, Sejas ONE, Ignoto BG, Caramelli B, Mansur AJ, et al. Outcomes in patients with fungal endocarditis: A multicenter observational cohort study. Int J Infect Dis. 2018;77:48–52. [DOI] [PubMed]

85.

Baker J, Denning DW. The SSS revolution in fungal diagnostics: speed, simplicity and sensitivity. Br Med Bull. 2023;147:62–78. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

86.

Oliveira LVN, Wang R, Specht CA, Levitz SM. Vaccines for human fungal diseases: close but still a long way to go. NPJ Vaccines. 2021;6:33. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]