Table Info

Table 2.

Overview of techniques for the analytical characterization and determination of NMs

Classification	Techniques	Relevant insight	Reference
Microscopic techniques	AFM, SEM, TEM, NSOM, SPM, CLSM, STEM, XRM, STXM	Particle size, distribution morphology, surface texture, electrical, shape, and aggregation state	[37–48]
Spectroscopic techniques	XRD, XRF, XAS, XPX	Chemical analysis of surfaces	[37, 41, 42]
	SLS, DLS, NS, SAXS, LIBD, Raman spectroscopy, LIF, NMR, photon correlation spectroscopy	Particle size, distribution morphology, surface texture, electrostatic charge, shape, and aggregation state	[37, 38, 40–42, 44, 51–53]
	Raman spectroscopy, LIF, UV-Vis, infrared spectroscopy, NMR	Chemical characterization	[37, 38, 40–42, 44, 51, 53, 54]
Mass spectrometry	TOF, QLIT, IT, single quadrupole, QQ, QTOF	Chemical characterization	[40, 42, 55–57]
Microfluidic technology	NMs-based microfluidic sensing	Optical, electrical, magnetic, and acoustic detection	[61–67]
Microfluidic technology	Microfluidic-based NMs synthesis	Synthesis of 0D, 1D, 2D, 3D NMs	[64–71]
Separation techniques based on size criterion	SEC, HDC, FFF	Separation and quantification of NMs	[72–86]
Separation techniques based on chemical structure criterion	CE modes, IMS/DMA	Separation and quantification of NMs	[87–89]

AFM: atomic force microscopy; SEM: scanning electron microscopy; TEM: transmission electron microscopy; STEM: scanning TEM; NSOM: near field-scanning optical microscopy; SPM: scanning probe microscopy; CLSM: confocal laser scanning microscopy; XRM: X-ray microscopy; STXM: scanning transmission XRM; XRD: X-ray diffraction; XRF: X-ray fluorescence; XAS: X-ray absorption; XPX: X-ray photoelectron; SLS: static light scattering; DLS: dynamic light scattering; NS: neutron scattering; SAXS: small-angle X-ray scattering; LIBD: lased-induced breakdown detection; LIF: lased-induced fluorescence; UV-Vis: ultraviolet-visible; NMR: nuclear magnetic resonance; TOF: time-of-flight; IT: ion trap; QLIT: quadrupole linear IT; QQ: triple quadrupole; QTOF: quadruple TOF; SEC: size exclusion chromatography; HDC: hydrodynamic chromatography; FFF: field flow fractionation; CE: capillary electrophoresis; IMS/DMA: ion-mobility spectrometry/differential mobility analysis

Declarations

Author contributions

NV: Investigation, Data curation, Visualization, Writing––original draft. MJV: Conceptualization, Methodology, Project administration, Writing––review & editing. ÁR: Conceptualization, Resources, Funding acquisition, Supervision, Writing––review & editing.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Funding

The work is funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (MICINN) Grants [PID2019-104381GB-I00]; Regional Government of Castilla-La Mancha (JCCM) Grants [SBPLY/17/180501/000188].

Copyright

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