Exploration of Foods and Foodomics

Table 2. Characteristics of legume proteins as wall materials for the encapsulation of fat-soluble vitamins

Wall material	Core material	Encapsulation technique	Main findings	Encapsulation efficiency	Reference
PPC	Vitamin D	Nano-emulsion	PPC used as a surfactant improved vitamin absorption	94–96%	[42, 45]
PPI	Vitamin E (tocopherol)	Emulsions	Higher stability of PPI emulsions when compared with SPI emulsions	NI	[46]
PPI	Vitamin D	Nano-emulsion created by ultrasound	PPI enhanced vitamin absorption	NI	[44]
SPI	Vitamin D	Microcapsules	Encapsulation has high vitamin retention and higher stability with respect to free vitamin D	> 82%	[43]
	Vitamin D	Nano-emulsions	Protect vitamin D from UV exposure	> 70%	[47]
	Vitamin E (tocopherol)	Microencapsulation by spray-drying	SPI was modified by acylation, leading to a higher retention efficiency of vitamin E compared to native protein	Native SPI: 80%; modified SPI: 95%	[40]
	Vitamin E (tocopherol)	Emulsions	Stable delivery system at low temperatures (4°C)	NI	[46]
	Vitamin E	Nano-emulsion	Stable delivery system	60–90% depending on pH	[41]
	Vitamin A (β-carotene)	Nanoparticles	Successfully managed to preserve β-carotene inside the protein aggregates	> 93%	[48]

Return to article view

PPC: pea protein concentrate; PPI: pea protein isolate; NI: not informed

Declarations

Author contributions

ADC and JNP: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing—original draft. MCP: Conceptualization, Writing—review & editing, Supervision. All authors read and approved the submitted version.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Funding

This work was financially supported by Agencia Nacional de Promoción Científica y Tecnológica [PICT2019-877]; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas [PIP202-1252]; and Universidad Nacional del La Plata [2020-A346]. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Copyright

References

Hashemi SMB, Pourmohammadi K, Gholamhosseinpour A, Es I, Ferreira DS, Khaneghah AM. Fat-soluble vitamins. In: Barba FJ, Saraiva JMA, Cravotto G, Lorenzo JM, editors. Innovative thermal and non-thermal processing, bioaccessibility and bioavailability of nutrients and bioactive compounds. Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing; 2019. pp. 267–89. [DOI]

Rafeeq H, Ahmad S, Tareen MBK, Shahzad KA, Bashir A, Jabeen R, et al. Biochemistry of fat soluble vitamins, sources, biochemical functions and toxicity. Haya Saudi J Life Sci. 2020;5:188–96. [DOI]

Maurya VK, Shakya A, Bashir K, Kushwaha SC, McClements DJ. Vitamin A fortification: recent advances in encapsulation technologies. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf. 2022;21:2772–819. [DOI] [PubMed]

Bastos Maia S, Rolland Souza AS, Costa Caminha MF, Lins da Silva S, Callou Cruz RSBL, Carvalho Dos Santos C, et al. Vitamin A and pregnancy: a narrative review. Nutrients. 2019;11:681. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Cui A, Xiao P, Ma Y, Fan Z, Zhou F, Zheng J, et al. Prevalence, trend, and predictor analyses of vitamin D deficiency in the US population, 2001–2018. Front Nutr. 2022;9:965376. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Halder M, Petsophonsakul P, Akbulut AC, Pavlic A, Bohan F, Anderson E, et al. Vitamin K: double bonds beyond coagulation insights into differences between vitamin K1 and K2 in health and disease. Int J Mol Sci. 2019;20:896. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Stevens SL. Fat-soluble vitamins. Nurs Clin North Am. 2021;56:33–45. [DOI] [PubMed]

Youness RA, Dawoud A, ElTahtawy O, Farag MA. Fat-soluble vitamins: updated review of their role and orchestration in human nutrition throughout life cycle with sex differences. Nutr Metab (Lond). 2022;19:60. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Moyersoen I, Devleesschauwer B, Dekkers A, De Ridder K, Tafforeau J, Van Camp J, et al. Intake of fat-soluble vitamins in the belgian population: adequacy and contribution of foods, fortified foods and supplements. Nutrients. 2017;9:860. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

10.

Wijekoon MJO, Mahmood K, Ariffin F, Nafchi AM, Zulkurnain M. Recent advances in encapsulation of fat-soluble vitamins using polysaccharides, proteins, and lipids: a review on delivery systems, formulation, and industrial applications. Int J Biol Macromol. 2023;241:124539. [DOI] [PubMed]

11.

Mujica-Álvarez J, Gil-Castell O, Barra PA, Ribes-Greus A, Bustos R, Faccini M, et al. Encapsulation of vitamins A and E as spray-dried additives for the feed industry. Molecules. 2020;25:1357. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

12.

For health professionals [Internet]. Bethesda: National Institutes of Health (NIH) Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS). [Cited 2023 Nov 3]. Available from: https://ods.od.nih.gov/HealthInformation/healthprofessional.aspx

13.

Roth DE, Abrams SA, Aloia J, Bergeron G, Bourassa MW, Brown KH, et al. Global prevalence and disease burden of vitamin D deficiency: a roadmap for action in low‐and middle‐income countries. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2018;1430:44–79. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

14.

Chaves MA, Ferreira LS, Baldino L, Pinho SC, Reverchon E. Current applications of liposomes for the delivery of vitamins: a systematic review. Nanomaterials (Basel). 2023;13:1557. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

15.

Fusaro M, Gallieni M, Porta C, Nickolas TL, Khairallah P. Vitamin K effects in-human health: new insights beyond bone and cardiovascular health. J Nephrol. 2020;33:239–49. Erratum in: J Nephrol. 2020;33:389. [DOI] [PubMed]

16.

Akbari S, Rasouli-Ghahroudi AA. Vitamin K and bone metabolism: a review of the latest evidence in preclinical studies. Biomed Res Int. 2018;2018:4629383. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

17.

Gholami H, Chmiel JA, Burton JP, Maleki Vareki S. The role of microbiota-derived vitamins in immune homeostasis and enhancing cancer immunotherapy. Cancers. 2023;15:1300. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

18.

Welsh J, Bak MJ, Narvaez CJ. New insights into vitamin K biology with relevance to cancer. Trends Mol Med. 2022;28:864–81. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

19.

Aaseth JO, Alehagen U, Opstad TB, Alexander J. Vitamin K and calcium chelation in vascular health. Biomedicines. 2023;11:3154. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

20.

Benedik E. Sources of vitamin D for humans. Int J Vitam Nutr Res. 2022;92:118–25. [DOI] [PubMed]

21.

Titcomb TJ, Tanumihardjo SA. Global concerns with B vitamin statuses: biofortification, fortification, hidden hunger, interactions, and toxicity. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf. 2019;18:1968–84. [DOI] [PubMed]

22.

Gödecke T, Stein AJ, Qaim M. The global burden of chronic and hidden hunger: trends and determinants. Global Food Secur. 2018;17:21–9. [DOI]

23.

Lowe NM. The global challenge of hidden hunger: perspectives from the field. Proc Nutr Soc. 2021;80:283–9. [DOI] [PubMed]

24.

Maurya VK, Aggarwal M. Factors influencing the absorption of vitamin D in GIT: an overview. J Food Sci Technol. 2017;54:3753–65. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

25.

Gomes A, Sobral PJDA. Plant protein-based delivery systems: an emerging approach for increasing the efficacy of lipophilic bioactive compounds. Molecules. 2021;27:60. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

26.

Correa-Rodríguez M, Gómez-Urquiza JL, Medina-Martínez I, González-Jiménez E, Schmidt-RioValle J, Rueda-Medina B. Low intakes of vitamins C and A are associated with obesity in early adulthood. Int J Vitam Nutr Res. 2022;92:204–13. [DOI] [PubMed]

27.

Thomas-Valdés S, Tostes MDGV, Anunciação PC, da Silva BP, Sant’Ana HMP. Association between vitamin deficiency and metabolic disorders related to obesity. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2017;57:3332–43. [DOI] [PubMed]

28.

Devi N, Sarmah M, Khatun B, Maji TK. Encapsulation of active ingredients in polysaccharide–protein complex coacervates. Adv Colloid Interface Sci. 2017;239:136–45. [DOI] [PubMed]

29.

Gharibzahedi SMT, Smith B. Legume proteins are smart carriers to encapsulate hydrophilic and hydrophobic bioactive compounds and probiotic bacteria: a review. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf. 2021;20:1250–79. [DOI] [PubMed]

30.

Sharif HR, Williams PA, Sharif MK, Abbas S, Majeed H, Masamba KG, et al. Current progress in the utilization of native and modified legume proteins as emulsifiers and encapsulants–a review. Food Hydrocolloids. 2018;76:2–16. [DOI]

31.

Malinowski SS, Barber KE, Kishk OA, Mays AA, Jones SR, Turner AL, et al. Effect of fish oil supplement administration method on tolerability and adherence: a randomized pilot clinical trial. Pilot Feasibility Stud. 2019;5:3. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

32.

Van der Wurff IS, Meyer BJ, De Groot RH. A review of recruitment, adherence and drop-out rates in omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation trials in children and adolescents. Nutrients. 2017;9:474. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

33.

Sridhar K, Bouhallab S, Croguennec T, Renard D, Lechevalier V. Application of high-pressure and ultrasound technologies for legume proteins as wall material in microencapsulation: new insights and advances. Trends Food Sci Technol. 2022;127:49–62. [DOI]

34.

Zhang Y, Sun T, Jiang C. Biomacromolecules as carriers in drug delivery and tissue engineering. Acta Pharm Sin B. 2018;8:34–50. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

35.

Dewan MF, Haque MA. Application of legume‐based materials in encapsulation technology: a review. Legume Science. 2023;5:e188. [DOI]

36.

Malekzad H, Mirshekari H, Sahandi Zangabad P, Moosavi Basri SM, Baniasadi F, Sharifi Aghdam M, et al. Plant protein-based hydrophobic fine and ultrafine carrier particles in drug delivery systems. Crit Rev Biotechnol. 2018;38:47–67. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

37.

Willett W, Rockström J, Loken B, Springmann M, Lang T, Vermeulen S, et al. Food in the anthropocene: the EAT–Lancet Commission on healthy diets from sustainable food systems. Lancet. 2019;393:447–92. Erratum in: Lancet. 2019;393:530. Erratum in: Lancet. 2019;393:2590. Erratum in: Lancet. 2020;395:338. Erratum in: Lancet. 2020;396:e56. [DOI] [PubMed]

38.

Afzaal M, Saeed F, Aamir M, Usman I, Ashfaq I, Ikram A, et al. Encapsulating properties of legume proteins: recent updates & perspectives. Int J Food Prop. 2021;24:1603–14. [DOI]

39.

Nesterenko A, Alric I, Silvestre F, Durrieu V. Comparative study of encapsulation of vitamins with native and modified soy protein. Food Hydrocolloids. 2014;38:172–9. [DOI]

40.

Yang R, Zhu L, Meng D, Wang Q, Zhou K, Wang Z, et al. Proteins from leguminous plants: from structure, property to the function in encapsulation/binding and delivery of bioactive compounds. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2022;62:5203–23. [DOI] [PubMed]

41.

Wang D, Zhong M, Sun Y, Fang L, Sun Y, Qi B, et al. Effects of pH on ultrasonic-modified soybean lipophilic protein nanoemulsions with encapsulated vitamin E. LWT. 2021;144:111240. [DOI]

42.

Walia N, Chen L. Pea protein based vitamin D nanoemulsions: fabrication, stability and in vitro study using Caco-2 cells. Food Chem. 2020;305:125475. [DOI] [PubMed]

43.

Khan WA, Butt MS, Pasha I, Jamil A. Microencapsulation of vitamin D in protein matrices: in vitro release and storage stability. J Food Meas Charact. 2020;14:1172–82. [DOI]

44.

Almajwal AM, Abulmeaty MMA, Feng H, Alruwaili NW, Dominguez-Uscanga A, Andrade JE, et al. Stabilization of vitamin D in pea protein isolate nanoemulsions increases its bioefficacy in rats. Nutrients. 2019;11:75. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

45.

Walia N, Zhang S, Wismer W, Chen L. A low energy approach to develop nanoemulsion by combining pea protein and Tween 80 and its application for vitamin D delivery. FHFH. 2022;2:100078. [DOI]

46.

Galani E, Ly I, Laurichesse E, Schmitt V, Xenakis A, Chatzidaki MD. Pea and soy protein stabilized emulsions: formulation, structure, and stability studies. Colloids Interfaces. 2023;7:30. [DOI]

47.

Lee H, Yildiz G, Dos Santos LC, Jiang S, Andrade JE, Engeseth NJ, et al. Soy protein nano-aggregates with improved functional properties prepared by sequential pH treatment and ultrasonication. Food Hydrocolloids. 2016;55:200–9. [DOI]

48.

Murru C. Nanopartículas de proteínas de soja: preparación, caracterización y aplicación a la encapsulación de β-caroteno [dissertation]. Oviedo: Universidad de Oviedo; 2017. Spanish.

49.

Ribeiro AM, Shahgol M, Estevinho BN, Rocha F. Microencapsulation of vitamin A by spray-drying, using binary and ternary blends of gum arabic, starch and maltodextrin. Food Hydrocolloids. 2020;108:106029. [DOI]

50.

Bostan A, Ghaitaranpour A. Co-encapsulation of vitamin D and calcium for food fortification. J Nutrition Fasting Health. 2019;7:229–34. [DOI]

51.

Zhu F. Encapsulation and delivery of food ingredients using starch based systems. Food Chem. 2017;229:542–52. [DOI] [PubMed]

52.

Hasanvand E, Fathi M, Bassiri A. Production and characterization of vitamin D₃ loaded starch nanoparticles: effect of amylose to amylopectin ratio and sonication parameters. J Food Sci Technol. 2018;55:1314–24. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

53.

Kumar Y, Basu S, Goswami D, Devi M, Shivhare US, Vishwakarma RK. Anti‐nutritional compounds in pulses: implications and alleviation methods. Legume Sci. 2022;4:e111. [DOI]

54.

Abbas Y, Ahmad A. Impact of processing on nutritional and antinutritional factors of legumes: a review. Ann.: Food Sci Technol. 2018:19:199–215.

55.

Serventi L. Upcycling legume water: from wastewater to food ingredients. New York: Springer International Publishing; 2020.

56.

Stantiall SE, Dale KJ, Calizo FS, Serventi L. Application of pulses cooking water as functional ingredients: the foaming and gelling abilities. Eur Food Res Technol. 2018;244:97–104. [DOI]

57.

Mustafa R, Reaney MJT. Aquafaba, from food waste to a value‐added product. In: Campos-Vega R, Oomah BD, Vergara-Castañeda HA, editors. Food wastes and by‐products: nutraceutical and health potential. New York: Wiley-Blackwell; 2020. pp. 93–126. [DOI]

58.

Martins GN, Carboni AD, Hugo AA, Castilho PC, Gómez-Zavaglia A. Chickpeas’ and lentils’ soaking and cooking wastewaters repurposed for growing lactic acid bacteria. Foods. 2023;12:2324. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

59.

Serventi L, Wang S, Zhu J, Liu S, Fei F. Cooking water of yellow soybeans as emulsifier in gluten-free crackers. Eur Food Res Technol. 2018;244:2141–8. [DOI]

60.

Liao Y, Li Z, Zhou Q, Sheng M, Qu Q, Shi Y, et al. Saponin surfactants used in drug delivery systems: a new application for natural medicine components. Int J Pharm. 2021;603:120709. [DOI] [PubMed]

61.

Sun F, Ye C, Thanki K, Leng D, van Hasselt PM, Hennink WE, et al. Mixed micellar system stabilized with saponins for oral delivery of vitamin K. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces. 2018;170:521–8. [DOI] [PubMed]

62.

Ribeiro AM, Estevinho BN, Rocha F. The progress and application of vitamin E encapsulation–a review. Food Hydrocolloids. 2021;121:106998. [DOI]

63.

Labuschagne P. Impact of wall material physicochemical characteristics on the stability of encapsulated phytochemicals: a review. Food Res Int. 2018;107:227–47. [DOI] [PubMed]

64.

Punoo HA, Rather JA, Muzaffar A. Development of soy whey fortified orange juice beverages: their physicochemical, rheological, antioxidant, and sensory properties. Explor Foods Foodomics. 2023;1:206–20. [DOI]