Values are expressed as mean ± standard deviation (n = 3). One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Tukey’s post-hoc test was used for comparisons. Within the same column, values followed by different letters are significantly different (Tukey, p < 0.05). AV: acid value; PV: peroxide value; p-AnV: p-anisidine value; TBARS: thiobarbituric acid reactive substances; HIPDP: hexane:isopropanol defatted powder; HDP: hexane-defatted powder; EDP: ethanol-defatted derived powder; CPDP: cook-press defatted powder.
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
Ethical approval
Not applicable.
Consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent to publication
Not applicable.
Availability of data and materials
The raw data supporting the conclusions of this manuscript will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation, to any qualified researcher
Open Exploration maintains a neutral stance on jurisdictional claims in published institutional affiliations and maps. All opinions expressed in this article are the personal views of the author(s) and do not represent the stance of the editorial team or the publisher.
References
FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP, WHO. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2025. Rome: FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP, WHO; 2025. [DOI]
FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP, WHO. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2024. Rome: FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP, WHO; 2024. [DOI]
Henchion M, Hayes M, Mullen AM, Fenelon M, Tiwari B. Future Protein Supply and Demand: Strategies and Factors Influencing a Sustainable Equilibrium.Foods. 2017;6:53. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Van Huis A, Van Itterbeeck J, Klunder H, Mertens E, Halloran A, Muir G, et al. Edible insects: Future prospects for food and feed security. Rome (Italy): Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO); 2013.
Oonincx DG, de Boer IJ. Environmental Impact of the Production of Mealworms as a Protein Source for Humans – A Life Cycle Assessment.PLoS ONE. 2012;7:e51145. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Miglietta P, De Leo F, Ruberti M, Massari S. Mealworms for Food: A Water Footprint Perspective.Water. 2015;7:6190–203. [DOI]
Ambele F, Chia S, Nsobinenyui D, Akutse K, Ngantu N, Akumeyam A, et al. Edible insects as a sustainable solution to food insecurity in conflict-ridden regions of Cameroon.J Insects Food Feed. 2025;11:2267–87. [DOI]
Dounias E. L’exploitation méconnue d’une ressource connue : la collecte des larves comestibles de charançons dans les palmiers raphias au sud Cameroun. In: Motte-Florac E, Thomas JMC, editors. Les insectes dans la tradition orale. Peeters-SELAF; 2003. pp. 205–26.
Siddiqui S, Aidoo O, Ghisletta M, Osei-Owusu J, Saraswati Y, Bhardwaj K, et al. African edible insects as human food – a comprehensive review.J Insects Food Feed. 2023;10:51–78. [DOI]
Womeni H, Tiencheu B, Linder M, Nabayo E, Tenyang N, Mbiapo F, et al. Nutritional value and effect of cooking, drying and storage process on some functional properties of Rhynchophorus phoenicis.Int J Life Sci Pharma Res. 2012;2:203–19.
Ayemele A, Muafor F, Levang P. Indigenous management of palm weevil grubs (Rhynchophorus phoenicis) for rural livelihoods in Cameroon.J Insects Food Feed. 2017;3:43–50. [DOI]
Tamesse J, Kekeunou S, Tchatchouang L, Ndegue O, Aissatou L, Tombouck D, et al. Insects as food, traditional medicine and cultural rites in the west and south regions of Cameroon.J Insects Food Feed. 2016;2:153–60. [DOI]
Fogang Mba AR, Kansci G, Viau M, Hafnaoui N, Meynier A, Demmano G, et al. Lipid and amino acid profiles support the potential of Rhynchophorus phoenicis larvae for human nutrition.J Food Compos Anal. 2017;60:64–73. [DOI]
Fogang Mba AR, Kansci G, Viau M, Ribourg L, Fogoh Muafor J, Hafnaoui N, et al. Growing conditions and morphotypes of African palm weevil (Rhynchophorus phoenicis) larvae influence their lipophilic nutrient but not their amino acid compositions.J Food Compos Anal. 2018;69:87–97. [DOI]
Motou W, Mba A, Mawamba A, Ntieche M, Mfombam A, Koule J, et al. Storage Stability of Rhynchophorus phoenicis Larvae Powder: Changes in Nutritional, Physicochemical, Water and Oil Absorption Properties Under Packaging Materials.J Food Nutr Sci. 2026;14:68–81. [DOI]
Tiencheu B, Womeni HM, Linder M, Mbiapo FT, Villeneuve P, Fanni J, et al. Changes of lipids in insect (Rhynchophorus phoenicis) during cooking and storage.Eur J Lipid Sci Technol. 2012;115:186–95. [DOI]
Fogang Mba AR, Ngono Eyenga SNN, Mbogning Feudjio W, Geairon A, Kermarrec A, Rabesona H, et al. Quality and Stability Evaluation of Rhynchophorus Phoenicis Larvae Powder Under Thermal and Defatting Treatments: Biochemical and Fluorescence Spectroscopy Analysis.Food Biophys. 2026;21:e21. [DOI]
Tzompa-Sosa DA, Yi L, van Valenberg HJ, van Boekel MA, Lakemond CM. Insect lipid profile: aqueous versus organic solvent-based extraction methods.Food Res Int. 2014;62:1087–94. [DOI]
Laurent S, Jury V, de Lamballerie M, Fayolle F. Effect of two defatting processes on the physicochemical and flow properties of Hermetia illucens and Tenebrio molitor larvae powders.J Food Process Preserv. 2022;46:e46. [DOI]
Laroche M, Perreault V, Marciniak A, Gravel A, Chamberland J, Doyen A. Comparison of Conventional and Sustainable Lipid Extraction Methods for the Production of Oil and Protein Isolate from Edible Insect Meal.Foods. 2019;8:572. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Kim TK, Lee JH, Yong HI, Kang MC, Cha JY, Chun JY, et al. Effects of Defatting Methods on the Physicochemical Properties of Proteins Extracted from Hermetia illucens Larvae.Foods. 2022;11:1400. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Marasca NS, de Sousa Araújo AC, da Silva Noda K, de Farias BS, Brizio APDR, Fernandes SS, et al. Effect of Defatting Method on the Nutritional, Functional, and Bioactive Properties of Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens) Larvae.Insects. 2025;16:844. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Rose A, Chiu Y, Showman C, Ku KM, Jaczynski J, Matak K. Characterization of protein concentrates obtained by defatting cricket, locust, and silkworm powders using one-step organic solvent extraction.LWT. 2023;182:114876. [DOI]
Jeong MS, Lee SD, Cho SJ. Effect of Three Defatting Solvents on the Techno-Functional Properties of an Edible Insect (Gryllus bimaculatus) Protein Concentrate.Molecules. 2021;26:5307. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Carré P, Bothe S, Borah CD, Piofczyk T, Hadjiali S. Solvent solutions: comparing extraction methods for edible oils and proteins in a changing regulatory landscape. Part 5: Impacts on the oil quality.OCL. 2025;32:6. [DOI]
L’hocine L, Boye JI, Arcand Y. Composition and Functional Properties of Soy Protein Isolates Prepared Using Alternative Defatting and Extraction Procedures.J Food Sci. 2006;71:e71. [DOI]
Pellerin G, Doyen A. Effect of thermal and defatting treatments on the composition, protein profile and structure of house cricket (Acheta domesticus) protein extracts.Food Chem. 2024;448:139149. [DOI] [PubMed]
Abutaha N, Al-Mekhlafi FA. Green Solvent-Based Extraction of Lipids and Proteins from Tenebrio molitor: A Sustainable Approach and Cytotoxic Activity.Food Sci Anim Resour. 2025;45:807–20. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Zhao X, Vázquez-Gutiérrez JL, Johansson DP, Landberg R, Langton M. Yellow Mealworm Protein for Food Purposes - Extraction and Functional Properties.PLOS ONE. 2016;11:e0147791. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Ngono NNSE, Fogang RAM, Mounjouenpou P, Kansci G. Nutritional, functional properties and estimated shelf-life of defatted Rhynchophorus phoenicis (Fabricius, 1801) larvae flours.Int J Biol Chem Sci. 2024;17:2439–55. [DOI]
Iberahim NI, Tan BC. Hexane-isopropanol Extraction and Quality Assessment of Omega-3 Fish Oil from Atlantic Salmon (Salmo Salar).IOP Conf Ser: Mater Sci Eng. 2020;932:012038. [DOI]
Hara A, Radin NS. Lipid extraction of tissues with a low-toxicity solvent.Anal Biochem. 1978;90:420–6. [DOI] [PubMed]
AFNORNF. NF V04-401: Viandes, produits à base de viandes et produits de la pêche - Détermination de l'humidité. Paris (France): AFNOR; 2001.
AFNORNF. NF V04-407: Viandes, produits à base de viandes et produits de la pêche - Détermination de la teneur en azote total et calcul de la teneur en protéines - Méthode Kjeldahl. Paris (France): AFNOR; 2002.
AFNORNF. NF V04-402: Viandes et produits à base de viande - Détermination de la teneur en matière grasse totale. Paris (France): AFNOR; 1967.
Atwater WO, Benedict FG. Experiments on the metabolism of matter and energy in the human body, 1898-1900. University of Florida, George A. Smathers Libraries; 1902. [DOI]
BSI. BS EN ISO 660: 2020 Animal and vegetable fats and oils. Determination of acid value and acidity. BSI; 2020. [DOI]
IDF. International Dairy Federation Standard Methods, Sec. 74A, Square Vergote 41. Brussels (Belgium): IDF; 1991.
Draper HH, Hadley M. Malondialdehyde determination as index of lipid Peroxidation.Methods Enzymol. 1990;186:421–31. [DOI] [PubMed]
AFNORNF. ISO 6885: 2016: Corps gras d'origines animale et végétale - Détermination de l'indice d'anisidine. Paris (France): AFNOR; 2016.
LIN MJY, HUMBERT ES, SOSULSKI FW. CERTAIN FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF SUNFLOWER MEAL PRODUCTS.J Food Sci. 2006;39:368–70. [DOI]
Wu H, Wang Q, Ma T, Ren J. Comparative studies on the functional properties of various protein concentrate preparations of peanut protein.Food Res Int. 2009;42:343–8. [DOI]
European Commission. Commission implementing regulation (EU) 2022/169 of 8 February 2022 authorising the placing on the market of frozen, dried and powder forms of yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor larva) as a novel food under Regulation (EU) 2015/2283 of the European Parliam. European Commission; 2022. pp. 10–6.
European Commission. Règlement d’exécution (UE) 2022/188 de la commission du 10 février 2022 autorisant la mise sur le marché de formes congelée, séchée et en poudre d’Acheta domesticus en tant que nouvel aliment en application du règlement (UE) 2015/2283 du Parlement europée. European Commission; 2022. pp. 108–14.
European Commission. Règlement d’exécution (UE) 2023/58 de la commission du 5 janvier 2023 autorisant la mise sur le marché des formes congelée, lyophilisée, en pâte et en poudre de larves d’Alphitobius diaperinus (petit ténébrion mat) en tant que nouvel aliment et modifiant . European Commission; 2023. pp. 10–5.
European Commission. Commission implementing regulation (EU) 2021/1975 of 12 November 2021 authorising the placing on the market of frozen, dried and powder forms of Locusta migratoria as a novel food under Regulation (EU) 2015/2283 of the European Parliament and of the Counc. European Commission; 2021. pp. 10–6.
Hishamuddin E, Sulaiman N, Ahmad Bustamam FK, Yeoh CB. Recent Updates on the Codex Standard for Named Vegetable Oils (CXS 210-1999) in Relation to Palm Oil and Palm Kernel Oil.Palm Oil Dev. 2020;72:34–41.
FAO, WHO. CXS-19-1981. Standard for edible fats and oils not covered by individuals standards. FAO, WHO; 2021.
Hurtado-Ribeira R, Hernández DM, Villanueva-Bermejo D, García-Risco MR, Hernández MD, Vázquez L, et al. The Interaction of Slaughtering, Drying, and Defatting Methods Differently Affects Oxidative Quality of the Fat from Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens) Larvae.Insects. 2023;14:368. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Mohammad Taghi Gharibzahedi S, Altintas Z. Lesser mealworm (Alphitobius diaperinus L.) larvae oils extracted by pure and binary mixed organic solvents: Physicochemical and antioxidant properties, fatty acid composition, and lipid quality indices.Food Chem. 2023;408:135209. [DOI] [PubMed]
GOED. GOED voluntary monograph. GOED; 2022.
Kim TK, Yong HI, Kim YB, Jung S, Kim HW, Choi YS. Effects of organic solvent on functional properties of defatted proteins extracted from Protaetia brevitarsis larvae.Food Chem. 2021;336:127679. [DOI] [PubMed]
Mishyna M, Martinez JI, Chen J, Benjamin O. Extraction, characterization and functional properties of soluble proteins from edible grasshopper (Schistocerca gregaria) and honey bee (Apis mellifera).Food Res Int. 2019;116:697–706. [DOI] [PubMed]
