Table Info

Participant ID	TST (minutes)	Sleep efficiency (%)
1	132.0	6.0
2	77.4	6.9
3	63.3	13.8
4	244.3	17.6
5	160.0	15.5
6	185.1	17.3
7	129.0	8.4
8	79.3	6.8
9	90.8	15.0
10	25.6	4.6
11	141.4	15.6
12	102.0	7.0
13	94.3	7.6
14	89.0	10.8
15	113.8	12.4
16	295.8	22.4
17	158.8	10.0
18	81.4	7.2
19	64.7	5.4

Declarations

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to acknowledge and thank the Boston University’s Vision and Cognition Laboratory for helping with some of the research process such as providing the actigraph technology.

Author contributions

TM and EA contributed to study design and implementation, database organization and assessment, and data analysis. TM wrote the first draft of the manuscript. EA, SN and ACG provided confirmation and advice on data analysis, interpretation, and manuscript revision.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Informed consent to participate in the study was obtained from all participants.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Funding

This work was supported by the Bridgewater State University Adrian Tinsley Program Summer Research Grant. The funding source had no influence on study design or decision to submit for publication or presentation at professional meetings.

Copyright

References

Sleep deprivation and deficiency [Internet]. Bethesda: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; [cited 2020 Aug 28]. Why is sleep important? Available from: https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/sleep-deprivation-and-deficiency

Natale V, Drejak M, Erbacci A, Tonetti L, Fabbri M, Martoni M. Monitoring sleep with a smartphone accelerometer. Sleep and Biol Rhythms. 2012;10:287–92. [DOI]

Stepanski E, Rybarczyk B, Lopez M, Stevens S. Assessment and treatment of sleep disorders in older adults: a review for rehabilitation psychologists. Rehabil Psychol. 2003;48:23–36. [DOI]

Campanini MZ, Lopez-Garcia E, Rodríguez-Artalejo F, González AD, Andrade SM, Mesas AE. Agreement between sleep diary and actigraphy in a highly educated Brazilian population. Sleep Med. 2017;35:27–34. [DOI] [PubMed]

Neikrug AB, Maglione JE, Liu L, Natarajan L, Avanzino JA, Corey-Bloom J et al. Effects of sleep disorders on the non-motor symptoms of Parkinson disease. J Clin Sleep Med. 2013;9:1119–29. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Pushpanathan ME, Loftus AM, Thomas MG, Gasson N, Bucks RS. The relationship between sleep and cognition in Parkinson’s disease: a meta-analysis. Sleep Med Rev. 2016;26:21–32. [DOI] [PubMed]

Bonnet MH. Performance and sleepiness as a function of frequency and placement of sleep disruption. Psychophysiology. 1986;23:263–71. [DOI] [PubMed]

Goel N, Rao H, Durmer JS, Dinges DF. Neurocognitive consequences of sleep deprivation. Semin Neurol. 2009;29:320–39. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Schreier DR, Banks C, Mathis J. Driving simulators in the clinical assessment of fitness to drive in sleepy individuals: a systematic review. Sleep Med Rev. 2018;38:86–100. [DOI] [PubMed]

10.

Xie Z, Chen F, Li WA, Geng X, Li C, Meng X et al. A review of sleep disorders and melatonin. Neurol Res. 2017;39:559–65. [DOI] [PubMed]

11.

Baglioni C, Spiegelhalder K, Lombardo C, Riemann D. Sleep and emotions: a focus on insomnia. Sleep Med Rev. 2010;14:227–38. [DOI] [PubMed]

12.

Sullivan K, Ordiah C. Association of mildly insufficient sleep with symptoms of anxiety and depression. Neurol Psychiatry Brain Res. 2018;30:1–4. [DOI]

13.

Kyle SD, Morgan K, Espie CA. Insomnia and health-related quality of life. Sleep Med Rev. 2010;14:69–82. [DOI] [PubMed]

14.

Jungquist CR, Pender JJ, Klingman KJ, Mund J. Validation of capturing sleep diary data via a wrist-worn device. Sleep disord. 2015;2015:758937. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

15.

Haba-Rubio J, Krieger J. Evaluation instruments for sleep disorders: a brief history of polysomnography and sleep medicine. In: Chiang RY, Kang SC , editors. Introduction to modern sleep technology. Switzerland: Springer; 2012. pp. 19–31.

16.

Actigraph’s History [Internet]. Pensacola: Actigraph; c2021 [cited 2020 Sept 18]. Available from: https://actigraphcorp.com/about-us/

17.

Cespedes EM, Hu FB, Redline S, Rosner B, Alcantara C, Cai J et al. Comparison of self-reported sleep duration with actigraphy: results from the Hispanic community health study/study of Latinos sueño ancillary study. Am J Epidemiol. 2016;183:561–73. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

18.

Silva GE, Goodwin JL, Sherrill DL, Arnold JL, Bootzin RR, Smith T et al. Relationship between reported and measured sleep times: the sleep heart health study (SHHS). J Clin Sleep Med. 2007;3:622–30. [PubMed] [PMC]

19.

Harvey AG, Tang NK. (Mis)Perception of sleep in insomnia: a puzzle and a resolution. Psychol Bull. 2012;138:77–101. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

20.

Rundo JV, Downey R III. Polysomnography. Handb of Clin Neurol. 2019;160:381–92. [DOI]

21.

Siversten B, Omvik S, Havik OE, Pallesen S, Bjorvatn B, Nielsen GH et al. A comparison of actigraphy and polysomnography in older adults treated for chronic primary insomnia. Sleep. 2006;29:1353–8. [DOI] [PubMed]

22.

Martin JL, Hakim AD. Wrist actigraphy. Chest. 2011;139:1514–27. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

23.

John D, Freedson P. Actigraph and actical physical activity monitors: a peek under the hood. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2012;44:S86–9. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

24.

Mantua J, Gravel N, Spencer RM. Reliability of sleep measures from four personal health monitoring devices compared to research-based actigraphy and polysomnography. Sensors (Basel). 2016;16:646. [DOI]

25.

Sadeh A, Hauri PJ, Kripke DF, Lavie P. The role of actigraphy in the evaluation of sleep disorders. Sleep. 1995;18:288–302. [DOI] [PubMed]

26.

Welk GJ, McClain JJ, Eisenmann JC, Wickel EE. Field validation of the MTI actigraph and BodyMedia armband monitor using the IDEEA monitor. Obesity. 2007;15:918–28. [DOI] [PubMed]

27.

Kosmadopoulos A, Sargent C, Darwent D, Zhou X, Roach GD. Alternatives to polysomnography (PSG): a validation of wrist actigraphy and a partial-PSG system. Behav Res Methods. 2014;46:1032–41. [DOI] [PubMed]

28.

Williams JM, Taylor DJ, Slavish DC, Gardner CE, Zimmerman MR, Patel K et al. Validity of actigraphy in young adults with insomnia. Behav Sleep Med. 2020;18:91–106. [DOI] [PubMed]

29.

Batista MA, Gaglani SM. The future of smartphones in healthcare. Virtual Mentor Vm. 2013;15:947–50. [DOI] [PubMed]

30.

Bhat S, Ferraris A, Gupta D, Mozafarian M, DeBari VA, Gushway-Henry N et al. Is there a clinical role for smartphone sleep apps? Comparison of sleep cycle detection by a smartphone application to polysomnography. J Clin Sleep Med. 2015;11:709–15. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

31.

Patel P, Kim JY, Brooks LJ. Accuracy of a smartphone application in estimating sleep in children. Sleep Breath. 2017;21:505–11. [DOI] [PubMed]

32.

Scott H, Lack L, Lovato N. A pilot study of a novel smartphone application for the estimation of sleep onset. J Sleep Res. 2018;27:90–7. [DOI] [PubMed]

33.

Azumio Inc Sleep Time: Cycle Alarm Timer. Version 5.168 [software]. 2013 [cited 2020 Sept 25]. Available from: https://apps.apple.com/us/app/sleep-time-cycle-alarm-timer/id555564825

34.

About the ESS [Internet] Melbourne: The Epworth Sleepiness Scale; [cited 2020 Feb 7]. Available from: http://epworthsleepinessscale.com/about-the-ess/

35.

Buysse DJ, Reynolds CF, Monk TH, Berman SR, Kupfer DJ. Pittsburgh sleep quality index. Psychiatry Research. 1989;28:193–213. [DOI] [PubMed]

36.

Sleep diary [Internet]. Arlington: National Sleep Foundation; c2021 [cited 2021 Feb 4]. Available from: https://www.thensf.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/NSF-Sleep-Diary-Rev-2-2021.pdf

37.

Kolla BP, Mansukhani S, Mansukhani MP. Consumer sleep tracking devices: a review of mechanisms, validity, and utility. Expert Rev Med Devices. 2016;13:497–506. [DOI] [PubMed]

38.

De Zambotti M, Godino JG, Baker FC, Cheung J, Patrick K, Colrain IM. The boom in wearable technology: cause for alarm or just what is needed to better understand sleep? Sleep. 2016;39:1761–2. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]