Exploration of Medicine

Table 2. Pre- and post-intervention body composition variables and repeated-measures ANOVA results.

Variables	Group	Time		Mean change (95% CI)	p-value (η_p²)
Variables	Group	Pre	Post	Mean change (95% CI)	p-value (η_p²)
Weight (kg)	Non-obese	59.10 ± 6.41	58.80 ± 6.76	–0.297 (–0.963, 0.370)	T	< 0.001 (0.207)^†††
	Non-obese	59.10 ± 6.41	58.80 ± 6.76	–0.297 (–0.963, 0.370)	G	< 0.001 (0.428)^†††
	Obese	72.09 ± 7.77^###	70.11 ± 7.90^###	–1.973^*** (–2.962, –0.984)	G	< 0.001 (0.428)^†††
	Obese	72.09 ± 7.77^###	70.11 ± 7.90^###	–1.973^*** (–2.962, –0.984)	T × G	0.006 (0.125)^††
BMI (kg/m²)	Non-obese	22.88 ± 1.91	22.70 ± 1.99	–0.177 (–0.446, 0.093)	T	0.006 (0.123)^††
	Non-obese	22.88 ± 1.91	22.70 ± 1.99	–0.177 (–0.446, 0.093)	G	< 0.001 (0.601)^†††
	Obese	28.48 ± 2.72^###	27.49 ± 2.46^###	–0.997^* (–1.794, –0.199)	G	< 0.001 (0.601)^†††
	Obese	28.48 ± 2.72^###	27.49 ± 2.46^###	–0.997^* (–1.794, –0.199)	T × G	0.051 (0.064)
SMM (kg)	Non-obese	22.15 ± 2.74	22.54 ± 2.60	0.383^* (0.028, 0.738)	T	0.084 (0.050)
	Non-obese	22.15 ± 2.74	22.54 ± 2.60	0.383^* (0.028, 0.738)	G	0.061 (0.059)
	Obese	23.88 ± 4.48	24.34 ± 4.52	0.467 (–0.457, 1.391)	G	0.061 (0.059)
	Obese	23.88 ± 4.48	24.34 ± 4.52	0.467 (–0.457, 1.391)	T × G	0.864 (0.001)
BFM (kg)	Non-obese	17.77 ± 3.86	16.74 ± 4.34	–1.027^* (–1.928, –0.125)	T	< 0.001 (0.238)^†††
	Non-obese	17.77 ± 3.86	16.74 ± 4.34	–1.027^* (–1.928, –0.125)	G	< 0.001 (0.455)^†††
	Obese	26.34 ± 5.41^###	24.83 ± 5.31^###	–1.510^*** (–2.332, –0.688)	G	< 0.001 (0.455)^†††
	Obese	26.34 ± 5.41^###	24.83 ± 5.31^###	–1.510^*** (–2.332, –0.688)	T × G	0.421 (0.011)
%BF (%)	Non-obese	29.56 ± 5.05	28.20 ± 5.59	–1.357^* (–2.378, –0.335)	T	< 0.001 (0.216)^†††
	Non-obese	29.56 ± 5.05	28.20 ± 5.59	–1.357^* (–2.378, –0.335)	G	< 0.001 (0.282)^†††
	Obese	36.88 ± 6.78^###	35.43 ± 6.63^###	–1.447^** (–2.456, –0.438)	G	< 0.001 (0.282)^†††
	Obese	36.88 ± 6.78^###	35.43 ± 6.63^###	–1.447^** (–2.456, –0.438)	T × G	0.898 (0.000)

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%BF: percent body fat; ANOVA: analysis of variance; BFM: body fat mass; BMI: body mass index; CI: confidence interval; G: group; SMM: skeletal muscle mass; T × G: time × group interaction; T: time; η_p²: partial eta squared. ††: Significant main effect or interaction effect from repeated-measures ANOVA (p < 0.01). †††: Significant main effect or interaction effect from repeated-measures ANOVA (p < 0.001). *: Significant within-group pre–post difference (p < 0.05). **: Significant within-group pre–post difference (p < 0.01). ***: Significant within-group pre–post difference (p < 0.001). ###: Significant between-group difference determined by an independent-samples t-test (p < 0.001).

Declarations

Author contributions

SyK: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Visualization, Writing—original draft. EL: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Investigation, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. DWL: Investigation, Writing—review & editing. SIC: Investigation, Writing—review & editing. JHC: Investigation, Writing—review & editing. YS: Investigation, Writing—review & editing. SW: Investigation, Writing—review & editing. SWK: Investigation, Writing—review & editing. JK: Investigation, Writing—review & editing. KL: Methodology, Formal analysis, Writing—review & editing. HYP: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Supervision, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. All authors read and approved the submitted version.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval

The study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of Konkuk University Medical Center (KUMC IRB No. 2026-01-037) and was conducted in accordance with the ethical principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. The study was also registered with the Clinical Research Information Service (CRIS), Republic of Korea (KCT0012016).

Consent to participate

The requirement for informed consent was waived by the Institutional Review Board of Konkuk University Medical Center due to the retrospective nature of the study.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Funding

This study was supported by the National Research Foundation (NRF) of Republic of Korea grant funded by the Korean government (MSIT) (NRF-2022R1F1A1063548). The funder had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Copyright

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Open Exploration maintains a neutral stance on jurisdictional claims in published institutional affiliations and maps. All opinions expressed in this article are the personal views of the author(s) and do not represent the stance of the editorial team or the publisher.

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