Exploration of Medicine

Table 2. USPSTF recommended colorectal cancer screening tests.

Test	USPSTF recommended frequency	Sensitivity	Specificity	Cost	CDPHP coverage
High-sensitivity guaiac fecal occult blood test (HSgFOBT)	Every year	Low (33%)	Moderate	$22	Yes
Fecal immunochemical test (FIT-iFOBT)	Every year	Moderate (75%)	Moderate	$22	Yes
FIT-DNA (Cologuard)	Every 3 years	High (92%)	High	$502	Yes
Computed tomography colonography	Every 5 years	High (89%)	High (75%)	$315	Prior authorization required
Flexible sigmoidoscopy	Every 5 years	Moderate to high (> 95% in distal colon)	High	$520	Yes
Colonoscopy	Every 10 years	High (93%)	High (73%)	$950	Yes

Return to article view

USPSTF: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force.

Declarations

Acknowledgments

AI-Assisted Work Statement: During the preparation of this work, the authors used MS PowerPoint and ChatGPT to put together the text and icons to generate the graphical abstract. After using MS PowerPoint and ChatGPT to generate the image, the authors reviewed and edited the content as needed and take full responsibility for the content of the publication.

Author contributions

TDP: Conceptualization. DTPL: Writing—original draft, Conceptualization. Both authors read, edited, and approved the submitted version.

Conflicts of interest

Dr. Tuan D. Pham, who is the Editorial Board Member of Exploration of Medicine, had no involvement in the decision-making or review process of this manuscript. The other author declares that he has no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Funding

Not applicable.

Copyright

Publisher’s note

Open Exploration maintains a neutral stance on jurisdictional claims in published institutional affiliations and maps. All opinions expressed in this article are the personal views of the author(s) and do not represent the stance of the editorial team or the publisher.

References

Cancer Stat Facts: Cancer of Any Site [Internet]. National Cancer Institute; [cited 2025 Oct 1]. Available from: https://seer.cancer.gov/statfacts/html/all.html

United States Cancer Cases and Death Statistics At a Glance [Internet]. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; [cited 2022 Sep 29]. Available from: https://gis.cdc.gov/Cancer/USCS/?CDC_AA_refVal=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fcancer%2Fdataviz%2Findex.htm#/AtAGlance/

Financial Burden of Cancer Care [Internet]. National Cancer Institute; [cited 2025 Oct 1]. Available from: https://progressreport.cancer.gov/after/economic_burden

Health and Economic Benefits of Colorectal Cancer Interventions [Internet]. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; [cited 2025 Oct 1]. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/priorities/colorectal-cancer.html?CDC_AAref_Val=https://www.cdc.gov/chronicdisease/programs-impact/pop/colorectal-cancer.htm

Mariotto AB, Yabroff KR, Shao Y, Feuer EJ, Brown ML. Projections of the cost of cancer care in the United States: 2010–2020. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2011;103:117–28. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Mariotto AB, Enewold L, Zhao J, Zeruto CA, Yabroff KR. Medical Care Costs Associated with Cancer Survivorship in the United States. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2020;29:1304–12. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Chen S, Cao Z, Prettner K, Kuhn M, Yang J, Jiao L, et al. Estimates and Projections of the Global Economic Cost of 29 Cancers in 204 Countries and Territories From 2020 to 2050. JAMA Oncol. 2023;9:465–72. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Morgan E, Arnold M, Gini A, Lorenzoni V, Cabasag CJ, Laversanne M, et al. Global burden of colorectal cancer in 2020 and 2040: incidence and mortality estimates from GLOBOCAN. Gut. 2023;72:338–44. [DOI] [PubMed]

Global patterns and trends in colorectal cancer incidence and mortality [Internet]. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC); c1965–2025 [cited 2025 Oct 1]. Available from: https://www.iarc.who.int/reference/global-patterns-and-trends-in-colorectal-cancer-incidence-and-mortality/

10.

Schliemann D, Ramanathan K, Matovu N, O’Neill C, Kee F, Su TT, et al. The implementation of colorectal cancer screening interventions in low-and middle-income countries: a scoping review. BMC Cancer. 2021;21:1125. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

11.

Henderson RH, French D, Maughan T, Adams R, Allemani C, Minicozzi P, et al. The economic burden of colorectal cancer across Europe: a population-based cost-of-illness study. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2021;6:709–22. [DOI] [PubMed]

12.

Bray F, Laversanne M, Sung H, Ferlay J, Siegel RL, Soerjomataram I, et al. Global cancer statistics 2022: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA Cancer J Clin. 2024;74:229–63. [DOI] [PubMed]

13.

American Cancer Society. Global cancer facts & figures 5th edition. Atlanta: American Cancer Society; 2024.

14.

Global cancer burden growing, amidst mounting need for services [Internet]. WHO; c2025 [cited 2025 Oct 1]. Available from: https://www.who.int/news/item/01-02-2024-global-cancer-burden-growing--amidst-mounting-need-for-services

15.

Colonoscopy costs at ASCs vs. HOPDs in each state [Internet]. Becker’s Healthcare; c2025 [cited 2025 Oct 1]. Available from: https://www.beckersasc.com/gastroenterology-and-endoscopy/colonoscopy-costs-at-ascs-vs-hopds-in-each-state.html

16.

Cancer cases rising for women and younger adults in US, report finds [Internet]. Guardian News & Media Limited or its affiliated companies; c2025 [cited 2025 Oct 1]. Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/society/2025/jan/16/cancer-young-women-adults

17.

Key statistics for colorectal (colon & rectal) cancer [Internet]. American Cancer Society, Inc.; c2025 [cited 2025 Oct 1]. Available from: https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/colon-rectal-cancer/about/key-statistics.html

18.

Cancer facts & figures 2024 [Internet]. American Cancer Society, Inc.; c2025 [cited 2025 Oct 1]. Available from: https://www.cancer.org/research/cancer-facts-statistics/all-cancer-facts-figures/2024-cancer-facts-figures.html

19.

All Cancer Sites Combined, Recent Trends in SEER Age-Adjusted Incidence Rates, 2000–2022 [Internet]. National Cancer Institute; [cited 2025 Oct 1]. Available from: https://seer.cancer.gov/explorer/

20.

Edwards BK, Noone AM, Mariotto AB, Simard EP, Boscoe FP, Henley SJ, et al. Annual Report to the Nation on the status of cancer, 1975–2010, featuring prevalence of comorbidity and impact on survival among persons with lung, colorectal, breast, or prostate cancer. Cancer. 2014;120:1290–314. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

21.

Colorectal cancer screening (PDQ^®)—health professional version [Internet]. National Cancer Institute; [cited 2025 Oct 1]. Available from: https://www.cancer.gov/types/colorectal/hp/colorectal-screening-pdq#section_2.1

22.

Wolf AMD, Fontham ETH, Church TR, Flowers CR, Guerra CE, LaMonte SJ, et al. Colorectal cancer screening for average-risk adults: 2018 guideline update from the American Cancer Society. CA Cancer J Clin. 2018;68:250–81. [DOI] [PubMed]

23.

Colorectal cancer statistics [Internet]. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; [cited 2025 oct 1]. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/colorectal-cancer/statistics/?CDC_AAref_Val=https://www.cdc.gov/cancer/colorectal/statistics/

24.

Cancer facts & figures 2008 [Internet]. American Cancer Society, Inc.; c2025 [cited 2025 Oct 1]. Available from: https://www.cancer.org/research/cancer-facts-statistics/all-cancer-facts-figures/cancer-facts-figures-2008.html

25.

American Cancer Society. Colorectal cancer facts & figures 2023. Atlanta: American Cancer Society; 2023.

26.

Imperiale TF, Wagner DR, Lin CY, Larkin GN, Rogge JD, Ransohoff DF. Results of screening colonoscopy among persons 40 to 49 years of age. N Engl J Med. 2002;346:1781–5. [DOI] [PubMed]

27.

Siegel RL, Fedewa SA, Anderson WF, Miller KD, Ma J, Rosenberg PS, et al. Colorectal Cancer Incidence Patterns in the United States, 1974–2013. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2017;109:djw322. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

28.

Lynch BM. Sedentary behavior and cancer: a systematic review of the literature and proposed biological mechanisms. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2010;19:2691–709. [DOI] [PubMed]

29.

Kehm RD, Terry MB. Early onset cancer trends and the persistently higher burden of cancer in young women. Oncologist. 2025;30:oyaf084. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

30.

Meng Y, Tan Z, Zhen J, Xiao D, Cai L, Dong W, et al. Global, regional, and national burden of early-onset colorectal cancer from 1990 to 2021: a systematic analysis based on the global burden of disease study 2021. BMC Med. 2025;23:34. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

31.

Abualkhair WH, Zhou M, Ahnen D, Yu Q, Wu XC, Karlitz JJ. Trends in Incidence of Early-Onset Colorectal Cancer in the United States Among Those Approaching Screening Age. JAMA Netw Open. 2020;3:e1920407. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

32.

Ystgaard MF, Myklebust TÅ, Smeby J, Larsen IK, Guren TK, Kure EH, et al. Early-onset colorectal cancer incidence in Norway: a national registry-based study (1993–2022) analysing subsite and morphology trends. ESMO Gastrointest Oncol. 2024;7:100065. [DOI]

33.

Demb J, Kolb JM, Dounel J, Fritz CDL, Advani SM, Cao Y, et al. Red Flag Signs and Symptoms for Patients With Early-Onset Colorectal Cancer: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. JAMA Netw Open. 2024;7:e2413157. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

34.

Rozani S, Lykoudis PM. Overcoming geographical and socioeconomic limitations in colorectal cancer screening. World J Gastrointest Oncol. 2024;16:1683–9. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

35.

Vitaloni M, Maguet K, Carlan A, Stack P, de Jong V, Williams R, et al. Clinical challenges and patient experiences in early-onset colorectal cancer: insights from seven European countries. BMC Gastroenterol. 2025;25:378. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

36.

Huang YN, Munteanu V, Love MI, Ronkowski CF, Deshpande D, Wong-Beringer A, et al. Perceptual and technical barriers in sharing and formatting metadata accompanying omics studies. Cell Genom. 2025;5:100845. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

37.

Sun C, Mobley E, Quillen M, Parker M, Daly M, Wang R, et al. Predicting Early-Onset Colorectal Cancer in Individuals Below Screening Age Using Machine Learning and Real-World Data: Case Control Study. JMIR Cancer. 2025;11:e64506. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

38.

Selby JV, Friedman GD, Quesenberry CP Jr, Weiss NS. A case-control study of screening sigmoidoscopy and mortality from colorectal cancer. N Engl J Med. 1992;326:653–7. [DOI] [PubMed]

39.

Winawer SJ, Zauber AG, Ho MN, O’Brien MJ, Gottlieb LS, Sternberg SS, et al. Prevention of colorectal cancer by colonoscopic polypectomy. The National Polyp Study Workgroup. N Engl J Med. 1993;329:1977–81. [DOI] [PubMed]

40.

Mandel JS, Bond JH, Church TR, Snover DC, Mary Bradley G, Schuman LM, et al. Reducing Mortality from Colorectal Cancer by Screening for Fecal Occult Blood. N Engl J Med. 1993;328:1365–71. [DOI]

41.

Atkin WS, Edwards R, Kralj-Hans I, Wooldrage K, Hart AR, Northover JMA, et al.; UK Flexible Sigmoidoscopy Trial Investigators. Once-only flexible sigmoidoscopy screening in prevention of colorectal cancer: a multicentre randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2010;375:1624–33. [DOI] [PubMed]

42.

Holme Ø, Løberg M, Kalager M, Bretthauer M, Hernán MA, Aas E, et al. Effect of flexible sigmoidoscopy screening on colorectal cancer incidence and mortality: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2014;312:606–15. [DOI]

43.

Ladabaum U, Dominitz JA, Kahi C, Schoen RE. Strategies for Colorectal Cancer Screening. Gastroenterology. 2020;158:418–32. [DOI] [PubMed]

44.

Bretthauer M, Løberg M, Wieszczy P, Kalager M, Emilsson L, Garborg K, et al.; NordICC Study Group. Effect of Colonoscopy Screening on Risks of Colorectal Cancer and Related Death. N Engl J Med. 2022;387:1547–56. [DOI] [PubMed]

45.

Pinsky PF, Schoen RE. Contribution of Surveillance Colonoscopy to Colorectal Cancer Prevention. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2020;18:2937–44. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

46.

Heisser T, Sergeev D, Hoffmeister M, Brenner H. Contributions of early detection and cancer prevention to colorectal cancer mortality reduction by screening colonoscopy: a validated modeling study. Gastrointest Endosc. 2024;100:710–7. [DOI] [PubMed]

47.

Cancer Stat Facts: Colorectal Cancer [Internet]. National Cancer Institute; [cited 2025 Oct 1]. Available from: https://seer.cancer.gov/statfacts/html/colorect.html

48.

Cancer Statistics Review Archive [Internet]. National Cancer Institute; [cited 2025 Oct 1]. Available from: https://seer.cancer.gov/csr/previous.html

49.

Zilja ES, Leivaditis V, Liolis E, Antzoulas A, Tchabashvili L, Tasios K, et al. Mental Health Disorders in Colorectal Cancer Patients Following Postoperative Complications: Results From a Single Tertiary Center. Bulg J Psychiatry. 2025;10:48–9.

50.

Zilja ES, Leivaditis V, Liolis E, Antzoulas A, Tchabashvili L, et al. Mental health disorders in colorectal cancer patients following postoperative complications. J Psychiatry. 2025;10:49–56.

51.

Li J, Ma C. Anxiety and depression during 3-year follow-up period in postoperative gastrointestinal cancer patients: prevalence, vertical change, risk factors, and prognostic value. Ir J Med Sci. 2023;192:2621–9. [DOI] [PubMed]

52.

Hu Z, Zhang H, Wang J, Xiong H, Liu Y, Zhu Y, et al. Nomogram to Predict the Risk of Postoperative Anxiety and Depression in Colorectal Cancer Patients. Int J Gen Med. 2022;15:4881–95. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

53.

Yuan P, Wang D, Xie D. Anxiety and Depression after Colorectal Cancer Surgery: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Short- and Long-Term Outcomes. Alpha Psychiatry. 2024;25:429–39. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

54.

Siegel RL, Miller KD, Wagle NS, Jemal A. Cancer statistics, 2023. CA Cancer J Clin. 2023;73:17–48. [DOI] [PubMed]

55.

Cho MY, Siegel DA, Demb J, Richardson LC, Gupta S. Increasing Colorectal Cancer Incidence Before and After Age 50: Implications for Screening Initiation and Promotion of “On-Time” Screening. Dig Dis Sci. 2022;67:4086–91. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

56.

Colorectal cancer [Internet]. WHO; c2025 [cited 2025 Oct 1]. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/colorectal-cancer

57.

Goosenberg E, Kaur A, Babiker HM. A Review of Hereditary Colorectal Cancers. In: StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025. [PubMed]

58.

Pallatt S, Nambidi S, Adhikary S, Banerjee A, Pathak S, Duttaroy AK. A brief review of Lynch syndrome: understanding the dual cancer risk between endometrial and colorectal cancer. Oncol Rev. 2025;19:1549416. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

59.

Sadien ID, Davies RJ, Wheeler J. The genomics of sporadic and hereditary colorectal cancer. Ann R Coll Surg Engl. 2024;106:313–20. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

60.

Cao Q, Tian Y, Deng Z, Yang F, Chen E. Epigenetic Alteration in Colorectal Cancer: Potential Diagnostic and Prognostic Implications. Int J Mol Sci. 2024;25:3358. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

61.

Dueñas N, Klinkhammer H, Bonifaci N, Spier I, Mayr A, Hassanin E, et al. Ability of a polygenic risk score to refine colorectal cancer risk in Lynch syndrome. J Med Genet. 2023;60:1044–51. [DOI] [PubMed]

62.

Mazzone R, Zwergel C, Mai A, Valente S. Epi-drugs in combination with immunotherapy: a new avenue to improve anticancer efficacy. Clin Epigenetics. 2017;9:59. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

63.

Song J, Yang P, Chen C, Ding W, Tillement O, Bai H, et al. Targeting epigenetic regulators as a promising avenue to overcome cancer therapy resistance. Signal Transduct Target Ther. 2025;10:219. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

64.

Gao K, Jin H, Yang Y, Li J, He Y, Zhou R, et al. Family history of colorectal cancer and risk of colorectal neoplasia: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Gastroenterol. 2025;120:531–9. [DOI]

65.

Roshandel G, Ghasemi-Kebria F, Malekzadeh R. Colorectal Cancer: Epidemiology, Risk Factors, and Prevention. Cancers (Basel). 2024;16:1530. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

66.

Wu J, Zhang Q, Li X, Bai T, Hou X, Li G, et al. The Effect of the Second Forward View on the Detection Rate of Sessile Serrated Lesions in the Proximal Colon: A Single-Center Prospective Randomized Controlled Study. Clin Transl Gastroenterol. 2025;16:e00805. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

67.

Wang J, Xu G, Hu X, Li W, Yao N, Han F, et al. The histologic features, molecular features, detection and management of serrated polyps: a review. Front Oncol. 2024;14:1356250. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

68.

Papier K, Bradbury KE, Balkwill A, Barnes I, Smith-Byrne K, Gunter MJ, et al. Diet-wide analyses for risk of colorectal cancer: prospective study of 12,251 incident cases among 542,778 women in the UK. Nat Commun. 2025;16:375. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

69.

Yang S, Wang Y, Sheng L, Cui W, Ma C. The effect of fecal bile acids on the incidence and risk-stratification of colorectal cancer: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Sci Rep. 2025;15:740. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

70.

Chu AH, Lin K, Croker H, Kefyalew S, Markozannes G, Tsilidis KK, et al. Dietary-Lifestyle Patterns and Colorectal Cancer Risk: Global Cancer Update Programme (CUP Global) Systematic Literature Review. Am J Clin Nutr. 2025;121:986–98. [DOI] [PubMed]

71.

Chen Q, Keum N, Giovannucci EL. Post-diagnosis dietary and lifestyle factors and mortality outcomes among colorectal cancer patients: a meta-analysis. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2025;[Epub ahead of print]. [DOI] [PubMed]

72.

Chen N, Liang H, Huang T, Huang N. Exposome approach for identifying modifiable factors for the prevention of colorectal cancer. Sci Rep. 2022;12:21615. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

73.

Zepeda-Rivera M, Minot SS, Bouzek H, Wu H, Blanco-Míguez A, Manghi P, et al. A distinct Fusobacterium nucleatum clade dominates the colorectal cancer niche. Nature. 2024;628:424–32. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

74.

Zhang C, Wang Y, Cheng L, Cao X, Liu C. Gut microbiota in colorectal cancer: a review of its influence on tumor immune surveillance and therapeutic response. Front Oncol. 2025;15:1557959. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

75.

van Zutphen M, Verkaar AJCF, van Duijnhoven FJB, Voortman T, Baskin ML, Chowdhury R, et al. Early-life anthropometry and colorectal cancer risk in adulthood: Global Cancer Update Programme (CUP Global) systematic literature review and meta-analysis of prospective studies. Int J Cancer. 2025;157:1094–109. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

76.

Tsenkova M, Brauer M, Pozdeev VI, Kasakin M, Busi SB, Schmoetten M, et al. Ketogenic diet suppresses colorectal cancer through the gut microbiome long chain fatty acid stearate. Nat Commun. 2025;16:1792. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

77.

Imanbayev N, Iztleuov Y, Bekmukhambetov Y, Abdelazim IA, Donayeva A, Amanzholkyzy A, et al. Colorectal cancer and microbiota: systematic review. Prz Gastroenterol. 2024;16:380–96. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

78.

Kuru-Yaşar R, Üstün-Aytekin Ö. The Crucial Roles of Diet, Microbiota, and Postbiotics in Colorectal Cancer. Curr Nutr Rep. 2024;13:126–51. [DOI]

79.

Lin KX, Istl AC, Quan D, Skaro A, Tang E, Zheng X. PD-1 and PD-L1 inhibitors in cold colorectal cancer: challenges and strategies. Cancer Immunol Immunother. 2023;72:3875–93. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

80.

Cai L, Chen A, Tang D. A new strategy for immunotherapy of microsatellite-stable (MSS)-type advanced colorectal cancer: Multi-pathway combination therapy with PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors. Immunology. 2024;173:209–26. [DOI] [PubMed]

81.

Sahin IH, Akce M, Alese O, Shaib W, Lesinski GB, El-Rayes B, et al. Immune checkpoint inhibitors for the treatment of MSI-H/MMR-D colorectal cancer and a perspective on resistance mechanisms. Br J Cancer. 2019;121:809–18. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

82.

FDA grants accelerated approval to pembrolizumab for first tissue/site-agnostic indication [Internet]. U.S. Food and Drug Administration; [cited 2025 Oct 1]. Available from: https://www.fda.gov/drugs/resources-information-approved-drugs/fda-grants-accelerated-approval-pembrolizumab-first-tissuesite-agnostic-indication

83.

Lizardo DY, Kuang C, Hao S, Yu J, Huang Y, Zhang L. Immunotherapy efficacy on mismatch repair-deficient colorectal cancer: From bench to bedside. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer. 2020;1874:188447. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

84.

Choucair K, Radford M, Bansal A, Park R, Saeed A. Advances in immune therapies for the treatment of microsatellite instability-high/deficient mismatch repair metastatic colorectal cancer (Review). Int J Oncol. 2021;59:74. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

85.

Ros J, Balconi F, Baraibar I, Saoudi Gonzalez N, Salva F, Tabernero J, et al. Advances in immune checkpoint inhibitor combination strategies for microsatellite stable colorectal cancer. Front Oncol. 2023;13:1112276. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

86.

Zhang Y, Rajput A, Jin N, Wang J. Mechanisms of Immunosuppression in Colorectal Cancer. Cancers (Basel). 2020;12:3850. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

87.

Alsheridah N, Akhtar S. Diet, obesity and colorectal carcinoma risk: results from a national cancer registry-based middle-eastern study. BMC Cancer. 2018;18:1227. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

88.

Barnestein R, Galland L, Kalfeist L, Ghiringhelli F, Ladoire S, Limagne E. Immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment modulation by chemotherapies and targeted therapies to enhance immunotherapy effectiveness. Oncoimmunology. 2022;11:2120676. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

89.

Zheng Z, Wieder T, Mauerer B, Schäfer L, Kesselring R, Braumüller H. T Cells in Colorectal Cancer: Unravelling the Function of Different T Cell Subsets in the Tumor Microenvironment. Int J Mol Sci. 2023;24:11673. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

90.

Zou D, Xin X, Xu Y, Xu H, Huang L, Xu T. Improving the efficacy of immunotherapy for colorectal cancer: Targeting tumor microenvironment-associated immunosuppressive cells. Heliyon. 2024;10:e36446. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

91.

Zeng W, Liu H, Mao Y, Jiang S, Yi H, Zhang Z, et al. Myeloid-derived suppressor cells: Key immunosuppressive regulators and therapeutic targets in colorectal cancer (Review). Int J Oncol. 2024;65:85. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

92.

Clerick J, Van Oosterwyck A, Carton S. Transforming the landscape of colorectal cancer treatment with immunotherapy: Evolution and future horizons. Cancer Treat Res Commun. 2024;39:100807. [DOI] [PubMed]

93.

Huyghe N, Benidovskaya E, Stevens P, Van den Eynde M. Biomarkers of Response and Resistance to Immunotherapy in Microsatellite Stable Colorectal Cancer: Toward a New Personalized Medicine. Cancers (Basel). 2022;14:2241. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

94.

Blair AB, Zheng L, Soares KC. The Landmark Series: Therapeutic Cancer Vaccine Strategies for Cold Tumors. Ann Surg Oncol. 2025;32:4957–66. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

95.

He R, Lao Y, Yu W, Zhang X, Jiang M, Zhu C. Progress in the Application of Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor-Based Immunotherapy for Targeting Different Types of Colorectal Cancer. Front Oncol. 2021;11:764618. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

96.

Ma S, Li L, Cai H, Guo T, Zhang L. Therapeutic challenge for immunotherapy targeting cold colorectal cancer: A narrative review. World J Clin Oncol. 2023;14:81–8. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

97.

Zhu Y, Li X, Chen T, Wang J, Zhou Y, Mu X, et al. Personalised neoantigen-based therapy in colorectal cancer. Clin Transl Med. 2023;13:e1461. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

98.

Cornista AM, Giolito MV, Baker K, Hazime H, Dufait I, Datta J, et al. Colorectal Cancer Immunotherapy: State of the Art and Future Directions. Gastro Hep Adv. 2023;2:1103–19. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

99.

Martín-García D, García-Aranda M, Redondo M. Biomarker Identification through Proteomics in Colorectal Cancer. Int J Mol Sci. 2024;25:2283. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

100.

Yang M, Cui M, Sun Y, Liu S, Jiang W. Mechanisms, combination therapy, and biomarkers in cancer immunotherapy resistance. Cell Commun Signal. 2024;22:338. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

101.

Rachiglio AM, Lambiase M, Fenizia F, Roma C, Cardone C, Iannaccone A, et al. Genomic Profiling of KRAS/NRAS/BRAF/PIK3CA Wild-Type Metastatic Colorectal Cancer Patients Reveals Novel Mutations in Genes Potentially Associated with Resistance to Anti-EGFR Agents. Cancers (Basel). 2019;11:859. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

102.

Wu J, Li X, Liu H, Liu Y, Liu X. Association of KRAS, NRAS, BRAF and PIK3CA gene mutations with clinicopathological features, prognosis and ring finger protein 215 expression in patients with colorectal cancer. Biomed Rep. 2023;19:104. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

103.

Chung J, Xiao S, Gao Y, Soung YH. Recent Technologies towards Diagnostic and Therapeutic Applications of Circulating Nucleic Acids in Colorectal Cancers. Int J Mol Sci. 2024;25:8703. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

104.

Yao S, Han Y, Yang M, Jin K, Lan H. Integration of liquid biopsy and immunotherapy: opening a new era in colorectal cancer treatment. Front Immunol. 2023;14:1292861. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

105.

Lone SN, Nisar S, Masoodi T, Singh M, Rizwan A, Hashem S, et al. Liquid biopsy: a step closer to transform diagnosis, prognosis and future of cancer treatments. Mol Cancer. 2022;21:79. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

106.

Malla M, Loree JM, Kasi PM, Parikh AR. Using Circulating Tumor DNA in Colorectal Cancer: Current and Evolving Practices. J Clin Oncol. 2022;40:2846–57. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

107.

Adhit KK, Wanjari A, Menon S, K S. Liquid Biopsy: An Evolving Paradigm for Non-invasive Disease Diagnosis and Monitoring in Medicine. Cureus. 2023;15:e50176. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

108.

Tao X, Li Q, Zeng Y. Clinical application of liquid biopsy in colorectal cancer: detection, prediction, and treatment monitoring. Mol Cancer. 2024;23:145. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

109.

Herranz-Montoya I, Angulo-Aguado M, Perna C, Zagorac S, García-Jimeno L, Park S, et al. p53 protein degradation redefines the initiation mechanisms and drives transitional mutations in colorectal cancer. Nat Commun. 2025;16:3934. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

110.

Sikavi DR, Wang K, Ma W, Drew DA, Ogino S, Giovannucci EL, et al. Aspirin Use and Incidence of Colorectal Cancer According to Lifestyle Risk. JAMA Oncol. 2024;10:1354–61. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

111.

Martling A, Hed Myrberg I, Nilbert M, Grönberg H, Granath F, Eklund M, et al.; ALASCCA Study Group. Low-dose aspirin for PI3K-altered localized colorectal cancer. N Engl J Med. 2025;393:1051–64. [DOI] [PubMed]

112.

Campbell PT, Patel AV, Newton CC, Jacobs EJ, Gapstur SM. Associations of recreational physical activity and leisure time spent sitting with colorectal cancer survival. J Clin Oncol. 2013;31:876–85. [DOI] [PubMed]

113.

Reardon B, Moore ND, Moore NS, Kofman E, AlDubayan SH, Cheung ATM, et al. Integrating molecular profiles into clinical frameworks through the Molecular Oncology Almanac to prospectively guide precision oncology. Nat Cancer. 2021;2:1102–12. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

114.

Ogino S, Nowak JA, Hamada T, Phipps AI, Peters U, Milner DA Jr, et al. Integrative analysis of exogenous, endogenous, tumour and immune factors for precision medicine. Gut. 2018;67:1168–80. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

115.

Qi GX, Zhao RX, Gao C, Ma ZY, Wang S, Xu J. Recent advances and challenges in colorectal cancer: from molecular research to treatment. World J Gastroenterol. 2025;31:106964. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

116.

Gebauer L, Nist A, Mernberger M, Stiewe T, Moll R, Stabla K, et al. Superior Overall Survival in Patients with Colorectal Cancer, Regular Aspirin Use, and Combined Wild-Type PIK3CA and KRAS-Mutated Tumors. Cancers (Basel). 2021;13:4959. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

117.

Slattery ML, Lundgreen A, Herrick JS, Caan BJ, Potter JD, Wolff RK. Diet and colorectal cancer: analysis of a candidate pathway using SNPS, haplotypes, and multi-gene assessment. Nutr Cancer. 2011;63:1226–34. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

118.

Xun D, Li X, Huang L, Zhao Y, Chen J, Qi X. Machine learning-based analysis identifies a 13-gene prognostic signature to improve the clinical outcomes of colorectal cancer. J Gastrointest Oncol. 2024;15:2100–16. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

119.

Bian J, Li Y, Dang Y, Chen Y. Deep learning for fine-grained molecular-based colorectal cancer classification. Transl Cancer Res. 2025;14:3035–46. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

120.

Wagner SJ, Reisenbüchler D, West NP, Niehues JM, Zhu J, Foersch S, et al. Transformer-based biomarker prediction from colorectal cancer histology: a large-scale multicentric study. Cancer Cell. 2023;41:1650–61. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

121.

Jung SY, Yu H, Tan X, Pellegrini M. Novel DNA methylation-based epigenetic signatures in colorectal cancer from peripheral blood leukocytes. Am J Cancer Res. 2024;14:2253–71. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

122.

Cost of colonoscopy polyp removal [Internet]. Sidecar Health; [cited 2025 Oct 1]. Available from: https://cost.sidecarhealth.com/n/colonoscopy-cost

123.

Colonoscopy polyp removal cost [Internet]. Sidecar Health; [cited 2025 Oct 1]. Available from: https://cost.sidecarhealth.com/ts/colonoscopy-cost-by-state

124.

Insurance Coverage for Colorectal Cancer Screening [Internet]. American Cancer Society; c2025 [cited 2025 Oct 1]. Available from: https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/colon-rectal-cancer/detection-diagnosis-staging/screening-coverage-laws.html

125.

Affordable care act implementation FAQs - set 12 [Internet]. U.S. Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services; [cited 2025 Oct 1]. Available from: https://www.cms.gov/CCIIO/Resources/Fact-Sheets-and-FAQs/aca_implementation_faqs12

126.

Preventative and screening services. [Internet]. U.S. Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services; [cited 2025 Oct 1]. Available from: https://www.medicare.gov/coverage/preventive-screening-services

127.

Klabunde CN, Cronin KA, Breen N, Waldron WR, Ambs AH, Nadel MR. Trends in colorectal cancer test use among vulnerable populations in the United States. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2011;20:1611–21. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

128.

Ward E, Halpern M, Schrag N, Cokkinides V, DeSantis C, Bandi P, et al. Association of insurance with cancer care utilization and outcomes. CA Cancer J Clin. 2008;58:9–31. [DOI] [PubMed]

129.

Cooper GS, Kou TD, Schluchter MD, Dor A, Koroukian SM. Changes in Receipt of Cancer Screening in Medicare Beneficiaries Following the Affordable Care Act. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2015;108:djv374. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

130.

Yabroff KR, Reeder-Hayes K, Zhao J, Halpern MT, Lopez AM, Bernal-Mizrachi L, et al. Health Insurance Coverage Disruptions and Cancer Care and Outcomes: Systematic Review of Published Research. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2020;112:671–87. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

131.

Colorectal Cancer Screening Tests [Internet]. American Cancer Society, Inc.; c2025 [cited 2025 Oct 1]. Available from: https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/colon-rectal-cancer/detection-diagnosis-staging/screening-tests-used.html

132.

Greegor DH. Diagnosis of large-bowel cancer in the asymptomatic patient. JAMA. 1967;201:943–5. [PubMed]

133.

Lee JK, Liles EG, Bent S, Levin TR, Corley DA. Accuracy of fecal immunochemical tests for colorectal cancer: systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 2014;160:171. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

134.

Zorzi M, Fedeli U, Schievano E, Bovo E, Guzzinati S, Baracco S, et al. Impact on colorectal cancer mortality of screening programmes based on the faecal immunochemical test. Gut. 2015;64:784–90. [DOI] [PubMed]

135.

Imperiale TF, Gruber RN, Stump TE, Emmett TW, Monahan PO. Performance Characteristics of Fecal Immunochemical Tests for Colorectal Cancer and Advanced Adenomatous Polyps: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 2019;170:319–29. [DOI] [PubMed]

136.

Imperiale TF, Ransohoff DF, Itzkowitz SH, Levin TR, Lavin P, Lidgard GP, et al. Multitarget stool DNA testing for colorectal-cancer screening. N Engl J Med. 2014;370:1287–97. [DOI] [PubMed]

137.

Ahlquist DA, Zou H, Domanico M, Mahoney DW, Yab TC, Taylor WR, et al. Next-generation stool DNA test accurately detects colorectal cancer and large adenomas. Gastroenterology. 2012;142:248–56. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

138.

Dickinson BT, Kisiel J, Ahlquist DA, Grady WM. Molecular markers for colorectal cancer screening. Gut. 2015;64:1485–94. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

139.

Shaukat A, Levin TR. Current and future colorectal cancer screening strategies. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2022;19:521–31. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

140.

FDA panel votes on blood-based test for colorectal cancer screening [Internet]. Haymarket Media, Inc.; c2025 [cited 2025 Oct 1]. Available from: https://www.empr.com/home/news/fda-panel-votes-on-blood-based-test-for-colorectal-cancer-screening/

141.

van den Puttelaar R, Nascimento de Lima P, Knudsen AB, Rutter CM, Kuntz KM, de Jonge L, et al. Effectiveness and Cost-Effectiveness of Colorectal Cancer Screening With a Blood Test That Meets the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services Coverage Decision. Gastroenterology. 2024;167:368–77. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

142.

Screening for Colorectal Cancer - Blood-Based Biomarker Tests (CAG-00454N) [Internet]. U.S. Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services; [cited 2025 Oct 1]. Available from: https://www.cms.gov/medicare-coverage-database/view/ncacal-decision-memo.aspx?proposed=N&NCAId=299

143.

Katz ML, Loomans-Kropp HA, Reiter PL. Colorectal cancer screening blood test: awareness and willingness among a national sample of adults post-Federal and Drug Administration approval. BMC Public Health. 2025;25:1853. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

144.

Clark A, Lauzon M, Griffin NM, Baldo L, Spiegel BMR, Almario CV. Patient preferences for a blood-based colorectal cancer screening test: insights from a conjoint analysis survey. Clin Transl Gastroenterol. 2025;[Epub ahead of print]. [DOI]

145.

Mohandesi Khosrosroshahi E, Bashi Zadeh Fakhar H, Akbari ME, Izadi N. Investigating the expression level of 9-methylated septin 9 in different grades of colorectal cancer—a meta-analysis study. Egypt J Med Hum Genet. 2025;26:38. [DOI]

146.

Chung DC, Gray DM 2nd, Singh H, Issaka RB, Raymond VM, Eagle C, et al. A Cell-free DNA Blood-Based Test for Colorectal Cancer Screening. N Engl J Med. 2024;390:973–83. [DOI] [PubMed]

147.

Johnson DA, Barclay RL, Mergener K, Weiss G, König T, Beck J, et al. Plasma Septin9 versus fecal immunochemical testing for colorectal cancer screening: a prospective multicenter study. PLoS One. 2014e98238. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

148.

Song L, Jia J, Peng X, Xiao W, Li Y. The performance of the SEPT9 gene methylation assay and a comparison with other CRC screening tests: A meta-analysis. Sci Rep. 2017;7:3032. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

149.

Lu D, Zhang Q, Li L, Luo X, Liang B, Lu Y, et al. Methylated Septin9 has moderate diagnostic value in colorectal cancer detection in Chinese population: a multicenter study. BMC Gastroenterol. 2022;22:232. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

150.

Freenome Announces Topline Results for PREEMPT CRC^® to Validate the First Version of its Blood-Based Test for the Early Detection of Colorectal Cancer [Internet]. Freenome Holdings, Inc.; c2025 [cited 2025 Oct 1]. Available from: https://www.freenome.com/newsroom/freenome-announces-topline-results-for-preempt-crc-to-validate-the-first-version-of-its-blood-based-test-for-the-early-detection-of-colorectal-cancer/

151.

Prevention of colorectal cancer through multiomics blood testing (PREEMPT CRC) [Internet]. ClinicalTrials.gov; [cited 2025 Oct 1]. Available from: https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT04369053

152.

Cohen JD, Li L, Wang Y, Thoburn C, Afsari B, Danilova L, et al. Detection and localization of surgically resectable cancers with a multi-analyte blood test. Science. 2018;359:926–30. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

153.

Eledkawy A, Hamza T, El-Metwally S. Precision cancer classification using liquid biopsy and advanced machine learning techniques. Sci Rep. 2024;14:5841. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

154.

Chen H, Zhou Q. Detecting liquid remnants of solid tumors treated with curative intent: Circulating tumor DNA as a biomarker of minimal residual disease (Review). Oncol Rep. 2023;49:106. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

155.

Nakamura Y, Tsukada Y, Matsuhashi N, Murano T, Shiozawa M, Takahashi Y, et al. Colorectal Cancer Recurrence Prediction Using a Tissue-Free Epigenomic Minimal Residual Disease Assay. Clin Cancer Res. 2024;30:4377–87. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

156.

Klein EA, Richards D, Cohn A, Tummala M, Lapham R, Cosgrove D, et al. Clinical validation of a targeted methylation-based multi-cancer early detection test using an independent validation set. Ann Oncol. 2021;32:1167–77. [DOI] [PubMed]

157.

Turnbull C, Wald N, Sullivan R, Pharoah P, Houlston RS, Aggarwal A, et al. GRAIL-Galleri: why the special treatment? Lancet. 2024;403:431–2. [DOI] [PubMed]

158.

Shao SH, Allen B, Clement J, Chung G, Gao J, Hubbell E, et al. Multi-cancer early detection test sensitivity for cancers with and without current population-level screening options. Tumori. 2023;109:335–41. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

159.

Li L, Sun Y. Circulating tumor DNA methylation detection as biomarker and its application in tumor liquid biopsy: advances and challenges. MedComm (2020). 2024;5:e766. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

160.

Hoffman RM, Wolf AMD, Raoof S, Guerra CE, Church TR, Elkin EB, et al. Multicancer early detection testing: Guidance for primary care discussions with patients. Cancer. 2025;131:e35823. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

161.

Imai M, Nakamura Y, Yoshino T. Transforming cancer screening: the potential of multi-cancer early detection (MCED) technologies. Int J Clin Oncol. 2025;30:180–93. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

162.

Kansal AR, Tafazzoli A, Shaul A, Chavan A, Ye W, Zou D, et al. Cost-effectiveness of a multicancer early detection test in the US. Am J Manag Care. 2024;30:e352–8. [DOI] [PubMed]

163.

Liu MC. Transforming the landscape of early cancer detection using blood tests-Commentary on current methodologies and future prospects. Br J Cancer. 2021;124:1475–7. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

164.

Lin D, Shen L, Luo M, Zhang K, Li J, Yang Q, et al. Circulating tumor cells: biology and clinical significance. Signal Transduct Target Ther. 2021;6:404. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

165.

Walter N, Groth J, Zu Zwerger BVU. Evaluation of an innovative multi-cancer early detection test: high sensitivity and specificity in differentiating cancer, inflammatory conditions, and healthy individuals. Front Oncol. 2025;15:1520869. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

166.

Vidal J, Fernández-Rodríguez MC, Casadevall D, García-Alfonso P, Páez D, Guix M, et al.; Spanish Cooperative Group for the Treatment of Digestive Tumours (TTD). Liquid Biopsy Detects Early Molecular Response and Predicts Benefit to First-Line Chemotherapy plus Cetuximab in Metastatic Colorectal Cancer: PLATFORM-B Study. Clin Cancer Res. 2023;29:379–88. [DOI] [PubMed]

167.

Reichert ZR, Morgan TM, Li G, Castellanos E, Snow T, Dall’Olio FG, et al. Prognostic value of plasma circulating tumor DNA fraction across four common cancer types: a real-world outcomes study. Ann Oncol. 2023;34:111–20. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

168.

Fischer LE, Stintzing S, Heinemann V, Keilholz U, Keune D, Vollbrecht C, et al. Liquid Biopsy in Colorectal Cancer: Quo Vadis? Implementation of Liquid Biopsies in Routine Clinical Patient Care in Two German Comprehensive Cancer Centers. Front Oncol. 2022;12:870411. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

169.

Jones GS, Bagga S, Sood P, Hariprasad E, Mangla B, Soni P, et al. MT46 Real World Use of Circulating Tumor DNA (CTDNA) in Colorectal Cancer (CRC): A Targeted Literature Review (TLR). Value Health. 2023;26:S305–6. [DOI]

170.

Capsule endoscopy [Internet]. The Johns Hopkins University, The Johns Hopkins Hospital, and Johns Hopkins Health System; c2025 [cited 2025 Oct 1]. Available from: https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/treatment-tests-and-therapies/capsule-endoscopy

171.

Rex DK, Adler SN, Aisenberg J, Burch WC Jr, Carretero C, Chowers Y, et al. Accuracy of capsule colonoscopy in detecting colorectal polyps in a screening population. Gastroenterology. 2015;148:948–57. [DOI] [PubMed]

172.

Colorectal cancer screening [Internet]. Elsevier; c2025 [cited 2025 Oct 1]. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/colorectal-cancer-screening

173.

Jain S, Maque J, Galoosian A, Osuna-Garcia A, May FP. Optimal strategies for colorectal cancer screening. Curr Treat Options Oncol. 2022;23:474–93. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

174.

Edwards BK, Ward E, Kohler BA, Eheman C, Zauber AG, Anderson RN, et al. Annual report to the nation on the status of cancer, 1975-2006, featuring colorectal cancer trends and impact of interventions (risk factors, screening, and treatment) to reduce future rates. Cancer. 2010;116:544–73. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

175.

National coverage determination (NCD) for colorectal cancer screening tests (210.3) [Internet]. U.S. Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services; [cited 2025 Oct 1]. Available from: https://www.cms.gov/medicare-coverage-database/view/ncd.aspx?NCDId=281

176.

Colorectal cancer CRC screening has come of age | DoM grand rounds | 29 March 2023 [Internet]. Google LLC; [cited 2025 Oct 1]. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bBTmKWTl3Yw

177.

Imperiale TF, Ransohoff DF, Itzkowitz SH, Turnbull BA, Ross ME; Colorectal Cancer Study Group. Fecal DNA versus fecal occult blood for colorectal-cancer screening in an average-risk population. N Engl J Med. 2004;351:2704–14. [DOI] [PubMed]

178.

Lin JS, Piper MA, Perdue LA, Rutter CM, Webber EM, O’Connor E, et al. Screening for Colorectal Cancer: Updated Evidence Report and Systematic Review for the US Preventive Services Task Force. JAMA. 2016;315:2576–94. [DOI] [PubMed]

179.

de Kanter C, Dhaliwal S, Hawks M. Colorectal Cancer Screening: Updated Guidelines From the American College of Gastroenterology. Am Fam Physician. 2022;105:327–9. [PubMed]

180.

Lee JK, Jensen CD, Levin TR, Zauber AG, Schottinger JE, Quinn VP, et al. Long-term Risk of Colorectal Cancer and Related Deaths After a Colonoscopy With Normal Findings. JAMA Intern Med. 2019;179:153–60. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

181.

Knudsen AB, Rutter CM, Peterse EFP, Lietz AP, Seguin CL, Meester RGS, et al. Colorectal Cancer Screening: An Updated Modeling Study for the US Preventive Services Task Force. JAMA. 2021;325:1998–2011. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

182.

Peterse EFP, Meester RGS, de Jonge L, Omidvari AH, Alarid-Escudero F, Knudsen AB, et al. Comparing the Cost-Effectiveness of Innovative Colorectal Cancer Screening Tests. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2021;113:154–61. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

183.

Doubeni CA, Fedewa SA, Levin TR, Jensen CD, Saia C, Zebrowski AM, et al. Modifiable Failures in the Colorectal Cancer Screening Process and Their Association With Risk of Death. Gastroenterology. 2019;156:63–74. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

184.

Corley DA, Jensen CD, Marks AR, Zhao WK, Lee JK, Doubeni CA, et al. Adenoma detection rate and risk of colorectal cancer and death. N Engl J Med. 2014;370:1298–306. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

185.

Kaminski MF, Regula J, Kraszewska E, Polkowski M, Wojciechowska U, Didkowska J, et al. Quality indicators for colonoscopy and the risk of interval cancer. N Engl J Med. 2010;362:1795–803. [DOI] [PubMed]

186.

Bretthauer M, Kaminski MF, Løberg M, Zauber AG, Regula J, Kuipers EJ, et al.; Nordic-European Initiative on Colorectal Cancer (NordICC) Study Group. Population-Based Colonoscopy Screening for Colorectal Cancer: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Intern Med. 2016;176:894–902. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

187.

Kim GH, Lee YC, Kim TJ, Hong SN, Chang DK, Kim YH, et al. Trends in colorectal cancer incidence according to an increase in the number of colonoscopy cases in Korea. World J Gastrointest Oncol. 2024;16:51–60. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

188.

Galoș D, Gorzo A, Balacescu O, Sur D. Clinical Applications of Liquid Biopsy in Colorectal Cancer Screening: Current Challenges and Future Perspectives. Cells. 2022;11:3493. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

189.

Beniwal SS, Lamo P, Kaushik A, Lorenzo-Villegas DL, Liu Y, MohanaSundaram A. Current Status and Emerging Trends in Colorectal Cancer Screening and Diagnostics. Biosensors (Basel). 2023;13:926. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

190.

Li JW, Wang LM, Ang TL. Artificial intelligence-assisted colonoscopy: a narrative review of current data and clinical applications. Singapore Med J. 2022;63:118–24. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

191.

Yin Z, Yao C, Zhang L, Qi S. Application of artificial intelligence in diagnosis and treatment of colorectal cancer: A novel Prospect. Front Med (Lausanne). 2023;10:1128084. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

192.

Adams LB, Richmond J, Corbie-Smith G, Powell W. Medical Mistrust and Colorectal Cancer Screening Among African Americans. J Community Health. 2017;42:1044–61. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

193.

Powell W, Richmond J, Mohottige D, Yen I, Joslyn A, Corbie-Smith G. Medical Mistrust, Racism, and Delays in Preventive Health Screening Among African-American Men. Behav Med. 2019;45:102–17. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

194.

How community outreach can increase access to colorectal cancer screening in underserved populations [Internet]. American Association for Cancer Research; [cited 2024 Oct 29]. Available from: https://www.aacr.org/blog/2021/03/09/how-community-outreach-can-increase-access-to-colorectal-cancer-screening-in-underserved-populations/

195.

Providing Free At-Home Colorectal Cancer Screening in Underserved Rural Communities [Internet]. CDM Publishing, LLC.; c2025 [cited 2024 Oct 29]. Available from: https://www.cancerhealth.com/article/expanding-access-cancer-care-providing-free-athome-colorectal-cancer-screening-underserved-rural-communities

196.

Texting May Help Reduce Disparities in Colorectal Cancer Screening [Internet]. National Cancer Institute; c2025 [cited 2024 Oct 29]. Available from: https://www.cancer.gov/news-events/cancer-currents-blog/2021/colorectal-cancer-screening-text-message-reduce-disparities

197.

Goal 2: Facilitate Equitable Access to Cancer Screening [Internet]. President’s Cancer Panel; [cited 2024 Oct 29]. Available from: https://prescancerpanel.cancer.gov/reports-meetings/cancer-screening-report-2022/closing-gaps/goal2-equitable-access

198.

Hirst Y, Skrobanski H, Kerrison RS, Kobayashi LC, Counsell N, Djedovic N, et al. Text-message Reminders in Colorectal Cancer Screening (TRICCS): a randomised controlled trial. Br J Cancer. 2017;116:1408–14. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

199.

Cancer Screening: Multicomponent Interventions — Colorectal Cancer [Internet]. Guide to Community Preventive Services; [cited 2024 Oct 29]. Available from: https://www.thecommunityguide.org/findings/cancer-screening-multicomponent-interventions-colorectal-cancer.html

200.

Doubeni CA, Corley DA, Zhao W, Lau Y, Jensen CD, Levin TR. Association between Improved Colorectal Screening and Racial Disparities. N Engl J Med. 2022;386:796–8. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

201.

Smith RA, Mettlin CJ, Eyre H. Cancer Screening and Early Detection. In: Kufe DW, Pollock RE, Weichselbaum RR, editors. Holland-Frei Cancer Medicine. 6th edition. Hamilton (ON): BC Decker Inc.; 2003.

202.

Smith RA, Andrews KS, Brooks D, Fedewa SA, Manassaram-Baptiste D, Saslow D, et al. Cancer screening in the United States, 2017: A review of current American Cancer Society guidelines and current issues in cancer screening. CA Cancer J Clin. 2017;67:100–21. [DOI] [PubMed]

203.

Sauer AG, Liu B, Siegel RL, Jemal A, Fedewa SA. Comparing cancer screening estimates: Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System and National Health Interview Survey. Prev Med. 2018;106:94–100. [DOI] [PubMed]

204.

National Colorectal Cancer Roundtable Recognizes Leaders in Colorectal Cancer Screening Efforts with 80% by 2018 National Achievement Award [Internet]. American Cancer Society; [cited 2025 Oct 1]. Available from: https://pressroom.cancer.org/80x18NationalAward2019

205.

Healthy People 2020 [Internet]. Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion; [cited 2025 Oct 1]. Available from: https://odphp.health.gov/healthypeople/2020

206.

Siegel RL, Wagle NS, Cercek A, Smith RA, Jemal A. Colorectal cancer statistics, 2023. CA Cancer J Clin. 2023;73:233–54. [DOI] [PubMed]

207.

Richardson LC, King JB, Thomas CC, Richards TB, Dowling NF, Coleman King S. Adults Who Have Never Been Screened for Colorectal Cancer, Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, 2012 and 2020. Prev Chronic Dis. 2022;19:220001. [DOI]

208.

Stanley SL, King JB, Thomas CC, Richardson LC. Factors associated with never being screened for colorectal cancer. J Community Health. 2013;38:31–9. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

209.

Legato MJ, editor. Principles of gender-specific medicine. 3rd ed. Academic Press; 2004.

210.

Siegel RL, Giaquinto AN, Jemal A. Cancer statistics, 2024. CA Cancer J Clin. 2024;74:12–49. [DOI] [PubMed]

211.

Ladabaum U, Mannalithara A, Meester RGS, Gupta S, Schoen RE. Cost-Effectiveness and National Effects of Initiating Colorectal Cancer Screening for Average-Risk Persons at Age 45 Years Instead of 50 Years. Gastroenterology. 2019;157:137–48. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

212.

Ladabaum U. Cost-Effectiveness of Current Colorectal Cancer Screening Tests. Gastrointest Endosc Clin N Am. 2020;30:479–97. [DOI] [PubMed]

213.

HEDIS and Performance Measurement [Internet]. National Committee for Quality Assurance; c2025 [cited 2025 Oct 1]. Available from: https://www.ncqa.org/hedis/

214.

State of Health Care Quality Report [Internet]. National Committee for Quality Assurance; c2025 [cited 2025 Oct 1]. Available from: https://www.ncqa.org/report-cards/health-plans/state-of-health-care-quality-report

215.

Rosenthal MB, Frank RG, Li Z, Epstein AM. Early experience with pay-for-performance: from concept to practice. JAMA. 2005;294:1788–93. [DOI] [PubMed]

216.

Markovitz AA, Ryan AM. Pay-for-Performance: Disappointing Results or Masked Heterogeneity? Med Care Res Rev. 2017;74:3–78. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

217.

Colorectal cancer screening (COL-e) [Internet]. Horizon Blue Cross Blue Shield of New Jersey; c2025 [cited 2025 Oct 1]. Available from: https://www.horizonblue.com/providers/resources/patient-quality-outcome-resources/hedis-resources/hedis-measurement-year-my-2024-provider-tips-optimizing-hedis-results/colorectal-cancer-screening-col-e

218.

COL-E - Colorectal Cancer Screening [Internet]. The Johns Hopkins University, The Johns Hopkins Hospital, and Johns Hopkins Health System; c2025 [cited 2025 Oct 1]. Available from: https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/johns-hopkins-health-plans/providers-physicians/health-care-performance-measures/hedis/colorectal-cancer-screening

219.

Calculating the Colorectal Cancer Screening Measure in the 2023 Adult and Health Home Core Sets [Internet]. Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services; [cited 2025 Oct 1]. Available from: https://www.medicaid.gov/quality-of-care/downloads/COL-ta-resource.pdf

220.

Colorectal Cancer Screening (COL) [Internet]. National Committee for Quality Assurance; c2025 [cited 2025 Oct 1]. Available from: https://www.ncqa.org/report-cards/health-plans/state-of-health-care-quality-report/colorectal-cancer-screening-col/

221.

Bousis D, Verras GI, Bouchagier K, Antzoulas A, Panagiotopoulos I, Katinioti A, et al. The role of deep learning in diagnosing colorectal cancer. Prz Gastroenterol. 2023;18:266–73. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

222.

Chlorogiannis DD, Verras GI, Tzelepi V, Chlorogiannis A, Apostolos A, Kotis K, et al. Tissue classification and diagnosis of colorectal cancer histopathology images using deep learning algorithms. Is the time ripe for clinical practice implementation? Prz Gastroenterol. 2023;18:353–67. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

223.

LeCun Y, Bengio Y, Hinton G. Deep learning. Nature. 2015;521:436–44. [DOI] [PubMed]

224.

Sun L, Zhang R, Gu Y, Huang L, Jin C. Application of Artificial Intelligence in the diagnosis and treatment of colorectal cancer: a bibliometric analysis, 2004–2023. Front Oncol. 2024;14:1424044. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

225.

AI-driven medical imaging may help fight against rectal cancer [Internet]. AZoNetwork; c2000–2025 [cited 2025 Oct 1]. Available from: https://www.news-medical.net/news/20211204/AI-driven-medical-imaging-may-help-fight-against-rectal-cancer.aspx

226.

Lo A, Le B, Colin-Escobar J, Ruiz A, Creps J, Kampalath R, et al. Disparities in Diagnostic Imaging for Initial Local Staging for Rectal Cancer. J Am Coll Radiol. 2024;21:154–64. [DOI] [PubMed]

227.

Xu H, Tang RSY, Lam TYT, Zhao G, Lau JYW, Liu Y, et al. Artificial Intelligence-Assisted Colonoscopy for Colorectal Cancer Screening: A Multicenter Randomized Controlled Trial. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2023;21:337–46. [DOI] [PubMed]

228.

Makar J, Abdelmalak J, Con D, Hafeez B, Garg M. Use of artificial intelligence improves colonoscopy performance in adenoma detection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Gastrointest Endosc. 2025;101:68–81. [DOI] [PubMed]

229.

Jia L, Zheng Q, Tian J, He D, Zhao J, Zhao L, et al. Artificial intelligence with magnetic resonance imaging for prediction of pathological complete response to neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy in rectal cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Oncol. 2022;12:1026216. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

230.

Tayyil Purayil AL, Joseph RM, Raj A, Kooriyattil A, Jabeen N, Beevi SF, et al. Role of Artificial Intelligence in MRI-Based Rectal Cancer Staging: A Systematic Review. Cureus. 2024;16:e76185. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

231.

Park JH, Kim EY, Luchini C, Eccher A, Tizaoui K, Shin JI, et al. Artificial Intelligence for Predicting Microsatellite Instability Based on Tumor Histomorphology: A Systematic Review. Int J Mol Sci. 2022;23:2462. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

232.

Hildebrand LA, Pierce CJ, Dennis M, Paracha M, Maoz A. Artificial Intelligence for Histology-Based Detection of Microsatellite Instability and Prediction of Response to Immunotherapy in Colorectal Cancer. Cancers (Basel). 2021;13:391. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

233.

Negro S, Pulvirenti A, Trento C, Indraccolo S, Ferrari S, Scarpa M, et al. Circulating Tumor DNA as a Real-Time Biomarker for Minimal Residual Disease and Recurrence Prediction in Stage II Colorectal Cancer: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Int J Mol Sci. 2025;26:2486. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

234.

Zeng Y, Xu S, Chapman WC Jr, Li S, Alipour Z, Abdelal H, et al. Real-time colorectal cancer diagnosis using PR-OCT with deep learning. Theranostics. 2020;10:2587–96. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

235.

Bilal M, Nimir M, Snead D, Taylor GS, Rajpoot N. Role of AI and digital pathology for colorectal immuno-oncology. Br J Cancer. 2023;128:3–11. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

236.

Yu C, Helwig EJ. The role of AI technology in prediction, diagnosis and treatment of colorectal cancer. Artif Intell Rev. 2022;55:323–43. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

237.

Stanley EAM, Souza R, Winder AJ, Gulve V, Amador K, Wilms M, et al. Towards objective and systematic evaluation of bias in artificial intelligence for medical imaging. J Am Med Inform Assoc. 2024;31:2613–21. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

238.

Gao W, Huang Y, Cui D, Yu Z, Liu W, Liang X, et al. Establishing rigorous and cost-effective clinical trials for artificial intelligence models. arXiv 2407.08554 [Preprint]. 2024 [cited 2025 Oct 1]. Available from: https://arxiv.org/abs/2407.08554

239.

Wang Y, He X, Nie H, Zhou J, Cao P, Ou C. Application of artificial intelligence to the diagnosis and therapy of colorectal cancer. Am J Cancer Res. 2020;10:3575–98. [PubMed] [PMC]

240.

Taylor SA, Mallett S, Beare S, Bhatnagar G, Blunt D, Boavida P, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of whole-body MRI versus standard imaging pathways for metastatic disease in newly diagnosed colorectal cancer: the prospective Streamline C trial. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2019;4:529–37. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

241.

Maas M, Rutten IJG, Nelemans PJ, Lambregts DMJ, Cappendijk VC, Beets GL, et al. What is the most accurate whole-body imaging modality for assessment of local and distant recurrent disease in colorectal cancer? A meta-analysis: imaging for recurrent colorectal cancer. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2011;38:1560–71. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

242.

García-Figueiras R, Baleato-González S, Padhani AR, Marhuenda A, Luna A, Alcalá L, et al. Advanced imaging of colorectal cancer: From anatomy to molecular imaging. Insights Imaging. 2016;7:285–309. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

243.

García-Figueiras R, Baleato-González S, Padhani AR, Luna-Alcalá A, Marhuenda A, Vilanova JC, et al. Advanced Imaging Techniques in Evaluation of Colorectal Cancer. Radiographics. 2018;38:740–65. [DOI] [PubMed]

244.

Liu W, Zeng A, Tang H, Qiang J. Radiologic Imaging Modalities for Colorectal Cancer. Dig Dis Sci. 2022;67:2792–804. [DOI] [PubMed]

245.

Serinsöz S, Aktürk R. Comparison of Imaging Modalities in the Diagnosis and Tumor Staging of Colorectal Adenocarcinoma. Curr Med Imaging. 2023;19:612–22. [DOI] [PubMed]

246.

Dobos N, Rubesin SE. Radiologic imaging modalities in the diagnosis and management of colorectal cancer. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am. 2002;16:875–95. [DOI] [PubMed]

247.

Kekelidze M, D’Errico L, Pansini M, Tyndall A, Hohmann J. Colorectal cancer: current imaging methods and future perspectives for the diagnosis, staging and therapeutic response evaluation. World J Gastroenterol. 2013;19:8502–14. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

248.

Kudo SE, Misawa M, Mori Y, Hotta K, Ohtsuka K, Ikematsu H, et al. Artificial Intelligence-assisted System Improves Endoscopic Identification of Colorectal Neoplasms. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2020;18:1874–81. [DOI] [PubMed]

249.

Lui TKL, Leung WK. Is artificial intelligence the final answer to missed polyps in colonoscopy? World J Gastroenterol. 2020;26:5248–55. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

250.

Sinagra E, Badalamenti M, Maida M, Spadaccini M, Maselli R, Rossi F, et al. Use of artificial intelligence in improving adenoma detection rate during colonoscopy: Might both endoscopists and pathologists be further helped. World J Gastroenterol. 2020;26:5911–8. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

251.

Zhou D, Tian F, Tian X, Sun L, Huang X, Zhao F, et al. Diagnostic evaluation of a deep learning model for optical diagnosis of colorectal cancer. Nat Commun. 2020;11:2961. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

252.

Barua I, Wieszczy P, Kudo SE, Misawa M, Holme Ø, Gulati S, et al. Real-Time Artificial Intelligence–Based Optical Diagnosis of Neoplastic Polyps during Colonoscopy. NEJM Evid. 2022;1:EVIDoa2200003. [DOI] [PubMed]

253.

Hsiao YJ, Wen YC, Lai W, Lin Y, Yang Y, Chien Y, et al. Application of artificial intelligence-driven endoscopic screening and diagnosis of gastric cancer. World J Gastroenterol. 2021;27:2979–93. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

254.

Messmann H, Bisschops R, Antonelli G, Libânio D, Sinonquel P, Abdelrahim M, et al. Expected value of artificial intelligence in gastrointestinal endoscopy: European Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ESGE) Position Statement. Endoscopy. 2022;54:1211–31. [DOI] [PubMed]

255.

Wallace MB, Sharma P, Bhandari P, East J, Antonelli G, Lorenzetti R, et al. Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Miss Rate of Colorectal Neoplasia. Gastroenterology. 2022;163:295–304. [DOI] [PubMed]

256.

Koh FH, Ladlad J, SKH Endoscopy Centre, Teo E, Lin C, Foo F. Real-time artificial intelligence (AI)-aided endoscopy improves adenoma detection rates even in experienced endoscopists: a cohort study in Singapore. Surg Endosc. 2023;37:165–71. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

257.

Spadaccini M, Massimi D, Mori Y, Alfarone L, Fugazza A, Maselli R, et al. Artificial Intelligence-Aided Endoscopy and Colorectal Cancer Screening. Diagnostics (Basel). 2023;13:1102. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

258.

Spadaccini M, Troya J, Khalaf K, Facciorusso A, Maselli R, Hann A, et al. Artificial Intelligence-assisted colonoscopy and colorectal cancer screening: Where are we going? Dig Liver Dis. 2024;56:1148–55. [DOI] [PubMed]

259.

Ferrari R, Mancini-Terracciano C, Voena C, Rengo M, Zerunian M, Ciardiello A, et al. MR-based artificial intelligence model to assess response to therapy in locally advanced rectal cancer. Eur J Radiol. 2019;118:1–9. [DOI] [PubMed]

260.

Wang P, Deng C, Wu B. Magnetic resonance imaging-based artificial intelligence model in rectal cancer. World J Gastroenterol. 2021;27:2122–30. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

261.

Villamanca JJ, Hermogino LJ, Ong KD, Paguia B, Abanilla L, Lim A, et al. Predicting the Likelihood of Colorectal Cancer with Artificial Intelligence Tools Using Fourier Transform Infrared Signals Obtained from Tumor Samples. Appl Spectrosc. 2022;76:1412–28. [DOI] [PubMed]

262.

Gerwert K, Schörner S, Großerueschkamp F, Kraeft AL, Schuhmacher D, Sternemann C, et al. Fast and label-free automated detection of microsatellite status in early colon cancer using artificial intelligence integrated infrared imaging. Eur J Cancer. 2023;182:122–31. [DOI] [PubMed]

263.

Waljee AK, Weinheimer-Haus EM, Abubakar A, Ngugi AK, Siwo GH, Kwakye G, et al. Artificial intelligence and machine learning for early detection and diagnosis of colorectal cancer in sub-Saharan Africa. Gut. 2022;71:1259–65. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

264.

Ziegelmayer S, Reischl S, Havrda H, Gawlitza J, Graf M, Lenhart N, et al. Development and Validation of a Deep Learning Algorithm to Differentiate Colon Carcinoma From Acute Diverticulitis in Computed Tomography Images. JAMA Netw Open. 2023;6:e2253370. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

265.

Peng Y, Deng H. Medical image fusion based on machine learning for health diagnosis and monitoring of colorectal cancer. BMC Med Imaging. 2024;24:24. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

266.

Sirinukunwattana K, Domingo E, Richman SD, Redmond KL, Blake A, Verrill C, et al. Image-based consensus molecular subtype (imCMS) classification of colorectal cancer using deep learning. Gut. 2021;70:544–54. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

267.

Wang KS, Yu G, Xu C, Meng XH, Zhou J, Zheng C, et al. Accurate diagnosis of colorectal cancer based on histopathology images using artificial intelligence. BMC Med. 2021;19:76. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

268.

Yu G, Sun K, Xu C, Shi X, Wu C, Xie T, et al. Accurate recognition of colorectal cancer with semi-supervised deep learning on pathological images. Nat Commun. 2021;12:6311. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

269.

Ho C, Zhao Z, Chen XF, Sauer J, Saraf SA, Jialdasani R, et al. A promising deep learning-assistive algorithm for histopathological screening of colorectal cancer. Sci Rep. 2022;12:2222. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

270.

Ju Y, Zheng L, Zhao P, Xin F, Wang F, Gao Y, et al. Artificial intelligence recognition of pathological T stage and tumor invasion in rectal cancer based on large panoramic pathological sections. Intell Med. 2022;2:141–51. [DOI]

271.

Neto PC, Montezuma D, Oliveira SP, Oliveira D, Fraga J, Monteiro A, et al. An interpretable machine learning system for colorectal cancer diagnosis from pathology slides. NPJ Precis Oncol. 2024;8:56. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

272.

Saillard C, Dubois R, Tchita O, Loiseau N, Garcia T, Adriansen A, et al. Validation of MSIntuit as an AI-based pre-screening tool for MSI detection from colorectal cancer histology slides. Nat Commun. 2023;14:6695. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

273.

Bilal M, Tsang YW, Ali M, Graham S, Hero E, Wahab N, et al. Development and validation of artificial intelligence-based prescreening of large-bowel biopsies taken in the UK and Portugal: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet Digit Health. 2023;5:e786–97. [DOI] [PubMed]

274.

Griem J, Eich M, Schallenberg S, Pryalukhin A, Bychkov A, Fukuoka J, et al. Artificial Intelligence-Based Tool for Tumor Detection and Quantitative Tissue Analysis in Colorectal Specimens. Mod Pathol. 2023;36:100327. [DOI] [PubMed]

275.

Prezja F, Äyrämö S, Pölönen I, Ojala T, Lahtinen S, Ruusuvuori P, et al. Improved accuracy in colorectal cancer tissue decomposition through refinement of established deep learning solutions. Sci Rep. 2023;13:15879. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

276.

Kather JN, Krisam J, Charoentong P, Luedde T, Herpel E, Weis CA, et al. Predicting survival from colorectal cancer histology slides using deep learning: A retrospective multicenter study. PLoS Med. 2019;16:e1002730. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

277.

Pai RK, Banerjee I, Shivji S, Jain S, Hartman D, Buchanan DD, et al. Quantitative Pathologic Analysis of Digitized Images of Colorectal Carcinoma Improves Prediction of Recurrence-Free Survival. Gastroenterology. 2022;163:1531–46. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

278.

Pham TD, Ravi V, Fan C, Luo B, Sun X. Classification of IHC Images of NATs With ResNet-FRP-LSTM for Predicting Survival Rates of Rectal Cancer Patients. IEEE J Transl Eng Health Med. 2022;11:87–95. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

279.

Pham TD, Ravi V, Luo B, Fan C, Sun X. Artificial intelligence fusion for predicting survival of rectal cancer patients using immunohistochemical expression of Ras homolog family member B in biopsy. Explor Target Antitumor Ther. 2023;4:1–16. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

280.

Jiang X, Zhao H, Saldanha OL, Nebelung S, Kuhl C, Amygdalos I, et al. An MRI Deep Learning Model Predicts Outcome in Rectal Cancer. Radiology. 2023;307:e222223. [DOI] [PubMed]

281.

L’Imperio V, Wulczyn E, Plass M, Müller H, Tamini N, Gianotti L, et al. Pathologist Validation of a Machine Learning-Derived Feature for Colon Cancer Risk Stratification. JAMA Netw Open. 2023;6:e2254891. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

282.

Yang T, Liang N, Li J, Yang Y, Li Y, Huang Q, et al. Intelligent Imaging Technology in Diagnosis of Colorectal Cancer Using Deep Learning. IEEE Access. 2019;7:178839–47. [DOI]

283.

Mao Y, Chen B, Wang H, Zhang Y, Yi X, Liao W, et al. Diagnostic performance of magnetic resonance imaging for colorectal liver metastasis: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sci Rep. 2020;10:1969. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

284.

Parsa N, Rex DK, Byrne MF. Colorectal polyp characterization with standard endoscopy: Will Artificial Intelligence succeed where human eyes failed? Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol. 2021;52–53:101736. [DOI] [PubMed]

285.

Wang X, Huang J, Ji X, Zhu Z. Application of artificial intelligence for detection and classification of colon polyps. Nan Fang Yi Ke Da Xue Xue Bao. 2021;41:310–3. Chinese. [PubMed] [PMC]

286.

Yin P, Zhou Z, Liu J, Jiang N, Zhang J, Liu S, et al. A generalized AI method for pathology cancer diagnosis and prognosis prediction based on transfer learning and hierarchical split. Phys Med Biol. 2023;68:175039. [DOI] [PubMed]

287.

Pham TD. Prediction of Five-Year Survival Rate for Rectal Cancer Using Markov Models of Convolutional Features of RhoB Expression on Tissue Microarray. IEEE/ACM Trans Comput Biol Bioinform. 2023;20:3195–204. [DOI] [PubMed]

288.

Tsai PC, Lee TH, Kuo KC, Su F, Lee TM, Marostica E, et al. Histopathology images predict multi-omics aberrations and prognoses in colorectal cancer patients. Nat Commun. 2023;14:2102. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

289.

Ladabaum U, Shepard J, Weng Y, Desai M, Singer SJ, Mannalithara A. Computer-aided Detection of Polyps Does Not Improve Colonoscopist Performance in a Pragmatic Implementation Trial. Gastroenterology. 2023;164:481–3. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

290.

Huang Y, Liu Z, He L, Chen X, Pan D, Ma Z, et al. Radiomics Signature: A Potential Biomarker for the Prediction of Disease-Free Survival in Early-Stage (I or II) Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer. Radiology. 2016;281:947–57. [PMID: 27347764 DOI: 10.1148/radiol.2016152234.

291.

Cheng CH, Shi SS. Artificial intelligence in cancer: applications, challenges, and future perspectives. Mol Cancer. 2025;24:274. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

292.

Mulita F, Verras GI, Anagnostopoulos CN, Kotis K. A Smarter Health through the Internet of Surgical Things. Sensors (Basel). 2022;22:4577. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

293.

Panda S, Kumar R, Panda B, Nanda L, Pradhan A, Jena C. Medical Applications of the Internet of Things (IoT): A Literature Review. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Innovative Sustainable Technologies for Energy, Mechatronics, and Smart Systems (ISTEMS); Dehradun, India. IEEE; 2024. pp. 1–5. [DOI]

294.

Pandurangan P, Rakshi AD, Arun Sundar MS, Samrat AV, Meenambiga SS, Vedanarayanan V, et al. Integrating cutting-edge technologies: AI, IoT, blockchain and nanotechnology for enhanced diagnosis and treatment of colorectal cancer – A review. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol. 2024;91:105197. [DOI]

295.

Alanazi A. The Potential, Applications, and Challenges of Internet of Things (IoT) Technologies From the Perspectives of Clinicians. Cureus. 2025;17:e85847. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

296.

Thottempudi P, Konduru RM, Valiveti HB, Kuraparthi S, Kumar V. Digital health resilience: IoT solutions in pandemic response and future healthcare scenarios. Discov Sustain. 2025;6:144. [DOI]

297.

Save money ($$$) on your colonoscopy! | Insider insurance SECRETS [Internet]. Google LLC; [cited 2025 Oct 1]. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3rzDK6yykF0

298.

Aleissa MA, Luca M, Singh JP, Chitragari G, Drelichman ER, Mittal VK, et al. Current status of artificial intelligence colonoscopy on improving adenoma detection rate based on systematic review of multiple metanalysis. Artif Intell Gastroenterol. 2025;6:106149. [DOI]

299.

Soleymanjahi S, Rajashekar N, Chung S, Grimshaw AA, Tvedt MJK, Foroutan F, et al. Provider Attitudes and Perceptions on Using Artificial Intelligence in Colonoscopy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Gastro Hep Adv. 2025;4:100746. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

300.

Lee MCM, Parker CH, Liu LWC, Farahvash A, Jeyalingam T. Impact of study design on adenoma detection in the evaluation of artificial intelligence-aided colonoscopy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Gastrointest Endosc. 2024;99:676–87. [DOI] [PubMed]

301.

Park JB, Bae JH. Effectiveness of a novel artificial intelligence-assisted colonoscopy system for adenoma detection: a prospective, propensity score-matched, non-randomized controlled study in Korea. Clin Endosc. 2025;58:112–20. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

302.

Park DK, Kim EJ, Im JP, Lim H, Lim YJ, Byeon JS, et al. A prospective multicenter randomized controlled trial on artificial intelligence assisted colonoscopy for enhanced polyp detection. Sci Rep. 2024;14:25453. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

303.

Imaging informatics [Internet]. Academic; c2000–2025 [cited 2025 Oct 1]. Available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imaging_informatics