Table Info

Table 3.

Genetic associations between COVID-19 and cancer with underlying mechanisms

Cancer type	Genetic link to COVID-19	Mechanisms/Pathophysiology	Reference
Lung cancer	Increased risk, particularly in severe cases.	- SARS-CoV-2 induces pulmonary fibrosis. - Activates oncogenic pathways (e.g., PI3K/AKT), promoting cell proliferation. - Depletes immune cells (NK cells, CTLs), impairing immune defense.	[130–132]
Breast cancer	Linked to HER2-positive cases in severe infections.	- Viral hyperglycosylation disrupts protein interactions. - E-Cadherin downregulation facilitates EMT and invasiveness. - NF-κB activation drives inflammation and tumor progression.	[112, 133, 134]
Pancreatic cancer	Potential modulation of tumorigenesis-related genes.	- Upregulation of PTEN, CREB1, CASP3, and SMAD3. - Chronic inflammation fosters oncogenesis and delays diagnosis.	[135–137]
CRC	COVID-19-induced gut microbiota dysregulation.	- Dysbiosis weakens mucosal immunity. - Chronic inflammation exacerbates mucosal damage, increasing CRC risk.	[138–141]
Oral cancer	Altered angiogenesis and extracellular matrix regulation.	- SARS-CoV-2 modulates angiopoietin-2 and EMMPRIN, promoting tumor growth and metastasis.	[88, 142, 143]
Gastric cancer	Higher incidence in critically ill patients.	- Prolonged viral replication in the GI tract via ACE2 receptors.	[144–147]
Head and neck cancer	Lower risk, potentially due to reduced TMPRSS2 expression.	- Limited viral entry minimizes cellular damage and oncogenesis.	[148–151]

ACE2: angiotensin-converting enzyme 2; COVID-19: coronavirus disease 2019; CRC: colorectal cancer; CTLs: cytotoxic T lymphocytes; EMMPRIN: extracellular matrix metalloproteinase inducer; EMT: epithelial-mesenchymal transition; NK: natural killer; SARS-CoV-2: severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2

Declarations

Author contributions

MMN and OAA equally contributed to: Conceptualization, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

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