Exploration of Medicine

Table 1. Causes of ductopenia

Causes	Examples
Toxins and drugs	Anti-microbials (amoxicillin/clavulanate, azithromycin, erythromycin, flucloxacillin, quinolones, sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim, terbinafine, thiabendazole, etc.)
	NSAIDs (ibuprofen, diclofenac)
	Psychotropics (chlorpromazine, amitriptyline, imipramine, carbamazepine, etc.)
	Herbal and dietary supplements (Artemisia annua, Gluco-Ease Plus, Hydroxycut)
Immunologic	Primary biliary cholangitis
	Immune cholangitis
	Primary sclerosing cholangitis
	Sarcoidosis
Infectious	Cytomegalovirus
	Rubella
	Hepatitis B and C viruses
	Epstein-Barr virus
	COVID-19
	Human immunodeficiency virus
Transplant-related diseases	Chronic graft-versus-host disease
Transplant-related diseases	Chronic ductopenic rejection
Neoplastic disorders	Hodgkin disease
Neoplastic disorders	Langerhans cell histiocytosis
Ischemic cholangiopathy	Surgical procedures (liver transplantation, cholecystectomy with arterial injury)
	Treatments (transarterial chemotherapy or chemoembolization)
	Systemic disease with microvascular involvement
	Intensive care unit cholangiopathy
Congenital, developmental, and genetic diseases	Late feature of extrahepatic biliary atresia
Congenital, developmental, and genetic diseases	Genetic diseases: Alagille syndrome, polycystic liver diseases, fibropolycystic liver diseases (Caroli disease and congenital hepatic fibrosis), cystic fibrosis, progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis, α1-antitrypsin deficiency
Idiopathic	Non-syndromic paucity of bile ducts in infancy without identifiable etiology
Idiopathic	Idiopathic adulthood ductopenia

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NSAIDs: non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs

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SS and KF: Conceptualization, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. HLW and JL: Validation, Writing—review & editing, Supervision. CP: Writing—review & editing. All authors read and approved the submitted version.

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