Table Info

Table 2.

Recent developments in 4D printing of BMMs for biomedical applications

4D printing technique	Stimuli	Materials and printed BMMs	Reference(s)
Tissue engineering
DLP	Hydration	GelMA/PEGDM–tissue scaffold	[46]
Extrusion	Solvent	Hyaluronan/Alg–bilayered scaffold	[47]
DIW	Shear strain	Oxidized and methacrylated Alg (OMA)/GelMA–cell condensate-laden bilayer system	[48]
DIW	Solvent	ADA-Gel-based T-shaped vascular bifurcation	[49]
DIW	Solvent	Methacrylated Alg (AA-MA) and methacrylated hyaluronic acid–vascular tissue	[160]
DIW	Solvent, near-infrared (NIR) light, and temperature	Alg/polydopamine–tissue scaffolds	[161]
Inkjet	Solvent	GelMA/Gel-carboxylated-methacrylate bilayer	[162]
SLA	Temperature	Soybean oil epoxidized acrylate (SOEA)–cardiac tissue	[163]
SLA	Temperature	Poly(methyl methacrylate)–neural tissue	[164]
FDM	Magnetism	PCL/iron doped HA–bone tissue	[165, 166]
	Temperature	PLA/PCL/SOEA–muscle tissue	[167]
	Solvent	AA-MA/PCL–muscle tissue	[168]
	Temperature	SOEA–muscle tissue	[169]
DIW and inkjet printing	Magnetism	Agarose/collagen type I-based cartilage tissue	[170]
Extrusion-based printing	Temperature	Polyurethane (PU) Commercial polymers–tissue scaffolds	[171]
DLP	Solvent	PEG(700)DA–tissue scaffolds	[172]
DIW	pH	PEG-based microgel scaffolds	[173]
DLP	Temperature	PCL diacrylate (PCLDA)-based bilayer membrane	[174]
Drug delivery
Extrusion	Humidity and temperature	PU and polyethylene–dual stimuli self-morphing structures	[175]
Extrusion	Alg-Ca²⁺ coordination	Pluronic F127 diacrylate macromer (F127DA)/Alg–shape memory hydrogels	[176]
DLP	Magnetoelectricity	4-hydroxybutyl acrylate (4-HBA)/urethane-polyethylene glycol-polypropylene glycol (PU-EO-PO) monomer/electromagnetized carbon porous nanocookies–conduit material	[63]
FDM	Temperature/fluid	PVA-based expandable drug delivery structures	[177]
FDM	Water	PVA and glycerol-based intravesical drug delivery device	[178]
DIW	Temperature/pH/enzyme	Pickering emulsion gels BSA methacryloyl (MA)/poly(N-isopropylacrylamide)-P(NIPAAm) (thermo-sensitive ink) BSA-MA/poly[2-dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate]-P(DMAEMA) (pH-sensitive ink) BSA-MA + F127 (enzyme sensitive ink)–hydrogels	[179]
DLP-PμSL	Solvent/light	PEGDA–microneedle array	[73]
DIW	pH	Alg fibres-based porous scaffolds	[180]
FDM	pH	PVP/methacrylic acid co-polymer-based tablets	[181]
FDM	pH	HPMC-AS-based tablets	[182]
Surgical and diagnostic tools
PμSL	Temperature	SMPs-based surgical gripper system	[71]
Jetting	Temperature	SMPs-based actuator system/self-expanded stent	[72]
FDM	Load	PU/fabric–wearable smart sensor	[87]
FDM	Motion	TPU–deformable lung	[89]
Implants and prosthetics
FDM	Temperature	Poly(ethylene glycol)/shape memory PLA (SMPLA)–biomimetic intestinal stents	[129]
DIW	Temperature	βCD-g-PCL–vascular stent	[130]
DIW	Temperature	PCL/acrylates-based vascular conduit	[135]
FDM	Temperature	Thermoplastic copolyester elastomer–vascular stent	[183]
	Temperature	PLA-based vascular stent	[184, 185]
	Thermo-magnetism	PLA-based magnetic nanocomposites–vascular occluder	[186]
DIW	Thermo-magnetism	Fe₃O₄/PLA/dichloromethane/benzophenone–vascular stent	[134]
SLA	Internal stress	GelMA/PEGDA–cardiac patch	[187]
SLA	Internal stress	SOEA/graphene–neural conduit	[188]
SLA	Temperature	PCL/isocyanato ethyl methacrylate–tracheal stent	[189]
DLP and DIW	NIR light and temperature	Bisphenol A diglycidyl ether, poly(propylene glycol) bis(2-aminopropyl) ether, and decylamine–cardiac patch	[190]
DIW	Fe³⁺ ions, sodium lactate/UV	Acrylamide-acrylic acid/cellulose nanocrystal–bilayer hydrogel stent	[191]
FDM	Magnetism	Fe₂O₃/shape memory PLA–occluders	[192]

Declarations

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge the financial support provided for this work by the Research Council, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka.

Author contributions

GAA: Conceptualization, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. SSA and RSD: Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. AW: Writing—review & editing.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Funding

This work received support from the University Research Grant [ASP/01/RE/TEC/2022/74] provided by the Research Council, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka. The funder had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Copyright

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