Table Info

Table 2.

Table summarizing the risk factors studied in research studies

No.	Author(s) and year	Study	Lung cancer risk factors	Preventative measure
1	Siddiqui et al., 2022 [12].	Lung cancer.	Smoking. Exposure to carcinogens such as asbestos. Environmental and genetic factors. Exposure to chromium, nickel, arsenic and PAHs. Other risk factors: asbestos and radon.	Smoking cessation in all individuals (effective preventive measure). Establish screening measures to significantly reduce morbidity and mortality associated with lung cancer.
2	Liu et al., 2021 [14].	Lung cancer death attributable to long-term ambient particulate matter PM_2.5 exposure in East Asian countries during 1990–2019.	Long-term exposure to ambient particles PM_2.5.	Reduction of ambient particulate air pollution PM_2.5: public health program required.
3	Wu et al., 2021 [15].	The epidemiological trends in the burden of lung cancer attributable to PM_2.5 exposure in China.	Air pollution by PM_2.5.	Regulation of ambient air pollution.
4	Christiani et al., 2021 [13].	Ambient air pollution and lung cancer: nature and nurture.	Air pollution by PAHs and metals such as arsenic, nickel and chromium. Increased PM exposure ≤ 2.5 μm. Genetic risk factors.	Reduction of air pollution.
5	Khorrami et al., 2021 [16].	Multiple air pollutant exposure and lung cancer in Tehran, Iran.	Air pollution by: p-xylene o-xylene Ethylbenzene Benzene m-xylene BTEX.	Reduction of air pollution.
6	Schabath et al., 2019 [3]	Cancer progress and priorities: lung cancer.	Tobacco smoking. Secondhand smoke. Electronic cigarettes. Other tobacco use (cigars, pipes, water pipes). Smoked cannabis. Radon. Asbestos. History of COPD, emphysema, or chronic bronchitis. History of asthma. History of pneumonia. History of Chlamydia pneumoniae. History of tuberculosis. HIV.	Smoking cessation.
7	Kanwal et al., 2017 [10].	Familial risk for lung cancer (review).	Tobacco smoking. Environmental risks. Indoor air pollution. Outdoor air pollution. Heritable factors.	Smoking cessation. Fight against environmental pollution.
8	Malhotra et al., 2016 [6].	Risk factors for lung cancer worldwide.	Tobacco smoking. Genetic risk factors: Family history and high-penetrance genes Genetic polymorphisms. Diet and alcohol. Chronic inflammation due to infections and other medical parameters. Ionizing radiation. Occupational exposures: Asbestos Metals and mixed occupation exposures Silica PAHs Diesel exhaust. Air pollution. Other risk factors.	Stopping the consumption of tobacco in all its forms. Adopt a diet rich in vegetables and fruits, especially crucifers.
9	Molina et al., 2008 [11].	Non–small cell lung cancer: epidemiology, risk factors, treatment, and survivorship.	Smoking. Secondary or passive smoking. Diet. Food supplements. Alcohol. Air pollution. Occupational exposure. Genetic risk factors.	Smoking cessation. Regular consumption of fruits and vegetables which are very rich in vitamins, antioxidant molecules and micronutrients such as: Carotenoids Lutein Zeaxanthin Lycopene α-Carotene. β-cryptoxanthin (BCX) showed a more consistent protective effect. Carotenoids decrease lung cancer risk. Studies have shown that vitamins C and vitamin E have protective roles.

COPD: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; HIV: human immunodeficiency virus

Declarations

Author contributions

HA: Conceptualization, Project administration, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. RF: Conceptualization, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. MB: Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. All authors have read and accepted the published version of the manuscript.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare they have no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Funding

Not applicable.

Copyright

Publisher’s note

Open Exploration maintains a neutral stance regarding jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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