Table Info

Table 3.

Reported morning outcomes (N = 526)

Outcomes	Cannabis n (%)	PSA n (%)	OTC n (%)	No aid n (%)	Chi-square
More refreshed	466 (88.6%^a)	9 (1.7%^b)	4 (0.8%^b)	11 (2.1%^b)	χ² = 1,284.48, P < 0.001
More focused	421 (80.0%^a)	8 (1.5%^b)	2 (0.4%^b)	28 (5.3%^c)	χ² = 1,093.13, P < 0.001
Better able to function	394 (74.9%^a)	8 (1.5%^b)	1 (0.2%^b)	23 (4.4%^c)	χ² = 1,037.19, P < 0.001
Fewer headaches	402 (76.4%^a)	6 (1.1%^b)	3 (0.6%^b)	12 (2.3%^b)	χ² = 1,106.96, P < 0.001
Less nauseous	384 (73.0%^a)	3 (0.6%^b)	2 (0.4%^b)	7 (1.3%^b)	χ² = 1,094.08, P < 0.001
Sleepy	118 (22.4%^a)	51 (9.7%^b)	20 (3.8%^c)	27 (5.1%^c)	χ² = 110.93, P < 0.001
More anxious	128 (24.3%^a)	36 (6.8%^b)	10 (1.9%^c)	31 (5.9%^b)	χ² = 160.68, P < 0.001
More irritable	119 (22.6%^a)	32 (6.1%^b)	17 (3.2%^c)	37 (7.0%^b)	χ² = 123.64, P < 0.001

Percentages with no superscripts or the same superscripts do not differ significantly from those in the same row while those with different superscripts are significantly different from those in the same row at P < 0.05. Missing data and not applicable responses were as follows: more refreshed = 36, more focused = 67, better able to function = 100, less headaches = 103, less nauseous = 130, sleepy = 310, more anxious = 321, more irritable = 32

Declarations

Author contributions

AS: Data curation, Formal analysis, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. CC: Data curation, Formal analysis, Visualization, Project administration, Supervision, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare they have no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval

The Washington State University Office of Research Assurances determined that this study was exempt from the need for review by the Institutional Review Board (IRB).

Consent to participate

Strainprint® obtained informed consent from all participants as part of the terms of use of their platform.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

Data are available upon request to carrie.cuttler@wsu.edu.

Funding

Not applicable.

Copyright

References

Chattu VK, Manzar MD, Kumary S, Burman D, Spence DW, Pandi-Perumal SR. The global problem of insufficient sleep and its serious public health implications. Healthcare (Basel). 2018;7:1. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Liu Y, Wheaton AG, Chapman DP, Cunningham TJ, Lu H, Croft B. Prevalence of healthy sleep duration among adults—United States, 2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2016;65:137–41. [DOI] [PubMed]

Walsh JK, Coulouvrat C, Hajak G, Lakoma MD, Petukhova M, Roth T, et al. Nighttime insomnia symptoms and perceived health in the America Insomnia Survey (AIS). Sleep. 2001;34:997–1011. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Bertisch SM, Herzig SJ, Winkelman JW, Buettner C. National use of prescription medications for insomnia: NHANES 1999–2010. Sleep. 2014;37:343–9. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Gunja N. The clinical and forensic toxicology of Z-drugs. J Med Toxicol. 2013;9:155–62. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Lie J, Tu KN, Shen DD, Wong BM. Pharmacological treatment of insomnia. P T. 2015;40:759–71. [PubMed] [PMC]

Rao TP, Ozeki M, Juneja LR. In search of a safe natural sleep aid. J Am Coll Nutr. 2015;34:436–47. [DOI] [PubMed]

Kripke DF. Hypnotic drug risks of mortality, infection, depression, and cancer: but lack of benefit. F1000Res. 2016;5:918. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Doremus JM, Stith SS, Vigil JM. Using recreational cannabis to treat insomnia: evidence from over-the-counter sleep aid sales in Colorado. Complement Ther Med. 2019;47:102207. [DOI] [PubMed]

10.

Skobic I, Apolinar GR, Quan SF, Welty CW, Haynes PL. Prevalence of marijuana use versus evidence-based treatments for sleep and relaxation. Sleep. 2019;42:A144. [DOI]

11.

Bachhuber M, Arnsten JH, Wurm G. Use of cannabis to relieve pain and promote sleep by customers at an adult use dispensary. J Psychoactive Drugs. 2019;51:400–4. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

12.

Webb CW, Webb SM. Therapeutic benefits of cannabis: a patient survey. Hawaii J Med Public Health. 2014;73:109–11. [PubMed] [PMC]

13.

Cranford JA, Arnedt JT, Conroy DA, Bohnert KM, Bourque C, Blow FC, et al. Prevalence and correlates of sleep-related problems in adults receiving medical cannabis for chronic pain. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2017;180:227–33. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

14.

Piper BJ, Dekeuster RM, Beals ML, Cobb CM, Burchman CA, Perkinson L, et al. Substitution of medical cannabis for pharmaceutical agents for pain, anxiety, and sleep. J Psychopharmacol. 2017;31:569–75. [DOI] [PubMed]

15.

Babson KA, Sottile J, Morabito D. Cannabis, cannabinoids, and sleep: a review of the literature. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2017;19:23. [DOI] [PubMed]

16.

Gates PJ, Albertella L, Copeland J. The effects of cannabinoid administration on sleep: a systematic review of human studies. Sleep Med Rev. 2014;18:477–87. [DOI] [PubMed]

17.

Kuhathasan N, Dufort A, MacKillop J, Gottschalk R, Minuzzi L, Frey BN. The use of cannabinoids for sleep: a critical review on clinical trials. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol. 2019;27:383–401. [DOI] [PubMed]

18.

Winiger EA, Hitchcock LN, Bryan AD, Cinnamon BL. Cannabis use and sleep: expectations, outcomes, and the role of age. Addict Behav. 2021;112:106642. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

19.

Vigil JM, Stith SS, Diviant JP, Brockelman F, Keeling K, Hall B. Effectiveness of raw, natural medical Cannabis flower for treating insomnia under naturalistic conditions. Medicines (Basel). 2018;5:75. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

20.

Choi S, Huang BC, Gamaldo CE. Therapeutic uses of cannabis on sleep disorders and related conditions. J Clin Neurophysiol. 2020;37:39–49. [DOI] [PubMed]

21.

Nicholson AN, Turner C, Stone BM, Robson PJ. Effect of Δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol on nocturnal sleep and early-morning behavior in young adults. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2004;24:305–13. [DOI] [PubMed]

22.

Hyman SM, Sinha R. Stress-related factors in cannabis use and misuse: implications for prevention and treatment. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2009;36:400–13. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

23.

Cousens K, DiMascio A. (−)δ⁹ THC as an hypnotic. Psychopharmacologia. 1973;33:355–64. [DOI] [PubMed]

24.

Gorelick DA, Goodwin RS, Schwilke E, Schwope DM, Darwin WD, Kelly DL, et al. Tolerance to effects of high-dose oral Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and plasma cannabinoid concentrations in male daily cannabis smokers. J Anal Tox. 2013;37:11–6. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

25.

Pivik RT, Zarcone V, Dement WC, Hollister LE. Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and synhexl: effects on human sleep patterns. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1972;13:426–35. [DOI] [PubMed]

26.

Goodhines PA, Gellis LA, Ansell EB, Park A. Cannabis and alcohol use for sleep aid: a daily diary investigation. Health Psychol. 2019;38:1036–47. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

27.

Cebrian J, Gonzalez-Cuevas G. Cannabis linked to improved sleep quality: a preliminary study. Eur Psychiatry. 2021;64:S564–5. [DOI] [PMC]

28.

Sznitman SR, Shochat T, Greene T. Is time elapsed between cannabis use and sleep start time associated with sleep continuity? An experience sampling method. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2020;208:107846. [DOI] [PubMed]

29.

Grotenhermen F. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of cannabinoids. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2003;42:327–60. [DOI] [PubMed]

30.

Sexton M, Cuttler C, Finnell JS, Mischley LK. A cross-sectional survey of medical cannabis users: patterns of use and perceived efficacy. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res. 2016;1:131–8. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

31.

Belendiuk KA, Babson KA, Vandrey R, Bonn-Miller MO. Cannabis species and cannabinoid concentration preference among sleep-disturbed medicinal cannabis users. Addict Behav. 2015;50:178–81. [DOI] [PubMed]

32.

do Vale TG, Furtado EC, Santos JG Jr, Viana GS. Central effects of citral, myrcene and limonene, constituents of essential oil chemotypes from Lippia alba (Mill.) n.e. Brown. Phytomedicine. 2002;9:709–14. [DOI] [PubMed]

33.

Antoniou T, Bodkin J, Ho JMW. Drug interactions with cannabinoids. CMAJ. 2020;192:E206. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

34.

Chait LD. Subjective and behavioral effects of marijuana the morning after smoking. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1990;100:328–33. [DOI] [PubMed]

35.

Earl DC, Van Tyle KM. New pharmacologic agents for insomnia and hypersomnia. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2020;26:629–33. [DOI] [PubMed]

36.

Culpepper L, Wingertzahn MA. Over-the-counter agents for the treatment of occasional disturbed sleep or transient insomnia: a systematic review of efficacy and safety. Prim Care Companion CNS Disord. 2015;17:10.4088/PCC.15r01798. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

37.

Randall S, Roehrs TA, Roth T. Over-the-counter sleep aid medications and insomnia. Prim Psychiatry. 2008;15:52–8.

38.

Kvamme SL, Pedersen MM, Rømer Thomsen K, Thylstrup B. Exploring the use of cannabis as a substitute for prescription drugs in a convenience sample. Harm Reduct J. 2021;18:72. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]