We are grateful to Professor Abdu Adem for facilitating the use of the central facilities of the Pharmacology Department, College of Medical and Health Science, United Arab Emirates University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.
Author contributions
HN: Investigation, Supervision, Funding acquisition, Methodology, Data curation, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. PY: Methodology, Data curation, Software, Validation, Writing—review & editing. JAG and RLJ: Resources, Methodology. RS: Investigation, Project administration, Methodology, Formal analysis, Data curation, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Ethical approval
All experimental animal procedures were approved by Animal Ethics Committee of United Arab Emirates University (UAEU-ERA_2016_4247) and are in accordance with the ARRIVE guidelines.
Consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent to publication
Not applicable.
Availability of data and materials
The datasets that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Funding
This work was funded by a research grant from the Sheikh Hamdan Bin Rashid Al Maktoum Award for Medical Sciences [MRG-66/2015-2016]. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Harris DL, Weston PJ, Gamble GD, Harding JE. Glucose profiles in healthy term infants in the first 5 days: The Glucose in Well Babies (GLOW) Study.J Pediatr. 2020;223:34–41.e4. [DOI] [PubMed]
Tamborowski M, Dufournet SG, Terrier L, Gillois P, Di Marco L. Analysis of screening for neonatal hypoglycemia in large-for-gestational-age newborns without risk factors, and proposed changes in practice at Grenoble University Hospital.Eur J Midwifery. 2023;7:39. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Wang Y, Liu H, Zhang L, Wang X, Wang M, Chen Z, et al. Umbilical artery cord blood glucose predicted hypoglycemia in gestational diabetes mellitus and other at-risk newborns.BMC Endocr Disord. 2023;23:277. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Futatani T, Shimao A, Ina S, Higashiyama H, Hatasaki K, Makimoto M, et al. Actual incidence of severe neonatal hypoglycemia in non-risk term neonates: a 10 year survey of all cases in Toyama Prefecture, Japan.Pediatr Int. 2022;64:e15254. [DOI] [PubMed]
Kaiser JR, Beardsall K, Harris DL. Editorial: Controversies in neonatal hypoglycemia.Front Pediatr. 2023;11:1236258. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Stanley CA, Thornton PS, De Leon DD. New approaches to screening and management of neonatal hypoglycemia based on improved understanding of the molecular mechanism of hypoglycemia.Front Pediatr. 2023;11:1071206. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Kurahashi N, Ogaya S, Maki Y, Nonobe N, Kumai S, Hosokawa Y, et al. Reading impairment after neonatal hypoglycemia with parieto-temporo-occipital injury without cortical blindness: a case report.World J Clin Cases. 2023;11:3899–906. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Edwards T, Alsweiler JM, Gamble GD, Griffith R, Lin L, McKinlay CJD, et al. Neurocognitive outcomes at age 2 years after neonatal hypoglycemia in a cohort of participants from the hPOD randomized trial.JAMA Netw Open. 2022;5:e2235989. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Wessels AM, Scheltens P, Barkhof F, Heine RJ. Hyperglycaemia as a determinant of cognitive decline in patients with type 1 diabetes.Eur J Pharmacol. 2008;585:88–96. [DOI] [PubMed]
Zhou D, Qian J, Liu CX, Chang H, Sun RP. Repetitive and profound insulin-induced hypoglycemia results in brain damage in newborn rats: an approach to establish an animal model of brain injury induced by neonatal hypoglycemia.Eur J Pediatr. 2008;167:1169–74. [DOI] [PubMed]
De Angelis LC, Brigati G, Polleri G, Malova M, Parodi A, Minghetti D, et al. Neonatal hypoglycemia and brain vulnerability.Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2021;12:634305. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Gu MH, Amanda F, Yuan TM. Brain injury in neonatal hypoglycemia: a hospital-based cohort study.Clin Med Insights Pediatr. 2019;13:1179556519867953. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Burns CM, Rutherford MA, Boardman JP, Cowan FM. Patterns of cerebral injury and neurodevelopmental outcomes after symptomatic neonatal hypoglycemia.Pediatrics. 2008;122:65–74. [DOI] [PubMed]
Rozance PJ, Hay WW Jr. New approaches to management of neonatal hypoglycemia.Matern Health Neonatol Perinatol. 2016;2:3. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Stomnaroska O, Dukovska V, Danilovski D. Neuro developmental consequences of neonatal hypoglycemia.Pril (Makedon Akad Nauk Umet Odd Med Nauki). 2020;41:89–93. [DOI] [PubMed]
Wickström R, Skiöld B, Petersson G, Stephansson O, Altman M. Moderate neonatal hypoglycemia and adverse neurological development at 2-6 years of age.Eur J Epidemiol. 2018;33:1011–20. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Arhan E, Öztürk Z, Serdaroğlu A, Aydın K, Hirfanoğlu T, Akbaş Y. Neonatal hypoglycemia: a wide range of electroclinical manifestations and seizure outcomes.Eur J Paediatr Neurol. 2017;21:738–44. [DOI] [PubMed]
McKinlay CJ, Alsweiler JM, Ansell JM, Anstice NS, Chase JG, Gamble GD, et al.; CHYLD Study Group. Neonatal glycemia and neurodevelopmental outcomes at 2 years.N Engl J Med. 2015;373:1507–18. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Kaiser JR, Bai S, Gibson N, Holland G, Lin TM, Swearingen CJ, et al. Association between transient newborn hypoglycemia and fourth-grade achievement test proficiency: a population-based study.JAMA Pediatr. 2015;169:913–21. [DOI] [PubMed]
Zheng F, Jia B, Dong F, Liu L, Rasul F, He J, et al. Glucose starvation induces mitochondrial fragmentation depending on the dynamin GTPase Dnm1/Drp1 in fission yeast.J Biol Chem. 2019;294:17725–34. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Amador-Alvarado L, Montiel T, Massieu L. Differential production of reactive oxygen species in distinct brain regions of hypoglycemic mice.Metab Brain Dis. 2014;29:711–9. [DOI] [PubMed]
Zhou Y, Huang L, Zheng W, An J, Zhan Z, Wang L, et al. Recurrent nonsevere hypoglycemia exacerbates imbalance of mitochondrial homeostasis leading to synapse injury and cognitive deficit in diabetes.Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2018;315:E973–86. [DOI] [PubMed]
Wiseman RW, Brown CM, Beck TW, Brault JJ, Reinoso TR, Shi Y, et al. Creatine kinase equilibration and ΔGATP over an extended range of physiological conditions: implications for cellular energetics, signaling, and muscle performance.Int J Mol Sci. 2023;24:13244. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Atkinson DE, Walton GM. Adenosine triphosphate conservation in metabolic regulation. Rat liver citrate cleavage enzyme.J Biol Chem. 1967;242:3239–41. [PubMed]
De la Fuente IM, Cortés JM, Valero E, Desroches M, Rodrigues S, Malaina I, et al. On the dynamics of the adenylate energy system: homeorhesis vs homeostasis.PLoS One. 2014;9:e108676. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Hardie DG. AMP-activated protein kinase—an energy sensor that regulates all aspects of cell function.Genes Dev. 2011;25:1895–908. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Ke R, Xu Q, Li C, Luo L, Huang D. Mechanisms of AMPK in the maintenance of ATP balance during energy metabolism.Cell Biol Int. 2018;42:384–92. [DOI] [PubMed]
Hardie DG. Keeping the home fires burning: AMP-activated protein kinase.J R Soc Interface. 2018;15:20170774. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Khowaja A, Choi IY, Seaquist ER, Öz G. In vivo Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy of cerebral glycogen metabolism in animals and humans.Metab Brain Dis. 2015;30:255–61. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Moreira PI, Carvalho C, Zhu X, Smith MA, Perry G. Mitochondrial dysfunction is a trigger of Alzheimer’s disease pathophysiology.Biochim Biophys Acta. 2010;1802:2–10. [DOI] [PubMed]
Moreira PI, Oliveira CR. Mitochondria as potential targets in antidiabetic therapy. In: Schwanstecher M, editor. Diabetes - Perspectives in Drug Therapy. Berlin: Springer; 2011. pp. 331–56.
Won SJ, Jang BG, Yoo BH, Sohn M, Lee MW, Choi BY, et al. Prevention of acute/severe hypoglycemia-induced neuron death by lactate administration.J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 2012;32:1086–96. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Herzog RI, Jiang L, Herman P, Zhao C, Sanganahalli BG, Mason GF, et al. Lactate preserves neuronal metabolism and function following antecedent recurrent hypoglycemia.J Clin Invest. 2013;123:1988–98. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Dutta S, Sengupta P. Men and mice: relating their ages.Life Sci. 2016;152:244–8. [DOI] [PubMed]
Fu X, Deja S, Kucejova B, Duarte JAG, McDonald JG, Burgess SC. Targeted determination of tissue energy status by LC-MS/MS.Anal Chem. 2019;91:5881–7. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Dave KR, Tamariz J, Desai KM, Brand FJ, Liu A, Saul I, et al. Recurrent hypoglycemia exacerbates cerebral ischemic damage in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats.Stroke. 2011;42:1404–11. [DOI] [PubMed]
Hardie DG. AMPK: positive and negative regulation, and its role in whole-body energy homeostasis.Curr Opin Cell Biol. 2015;33:1–7. [DOI] [PubMed]
Su J, Wang L. Research advances in neonatal hypoglycemic brain injury.Transl Pediatr. 2012;1:108–15. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Yu Q, Li J, Dai CL, Li H, Iqbal K, Liu F, et al. Anesthesia with sevoflurane or isoflurane induces severe hypoglycemia in neonatal mice.PLoS One. 2020;15:e0231090. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]