Exploration of BioMat-X

Table 6. Summary of lignin-based hydrogels for drug delivery: in vitro release kinetics and in vivo efficacy, highlighting translational challenges and future standardization needs.

Aspect	In vitro studies	In vivo/clinical studies	Challenges & future directions	References
Drug release profiles	- Lignin-poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles: controlled florfenicol release via Fickian diffusion; inhibited bacterial biofilms. - Carboxylated lignocellulose nanofibril-polyvinyl alcohol (CLCNF-PVA) hydrogels: 80.73% release over 36 h, Fickian kinetics. - Lignin-chitosan: pH-responsive release, high swelling rates.	- Fickian diffusion for coumarin 6 (59% encapsulation) and doxorubicin (DOX) (73% via nanoprecipitation); tumor inhibition, reduced chemotherapy toxicity. - Hydrogels: Controlled release, biocompatibility.	Limited in vivo validation; standardize models and mathematical tools (e.g., zero-order/Higuchi kinetics) for release characterization.	[89, 93–95]
Biocompatibility & efficacy	- Reduced cytotoxicity, enhanced antimicrobial activity. - Excellent biocompatibility via cytotoxicity assays. - Wound healing accelerated to 13 days.	High biocompatibility; promising targeted therapy trials.	Sparse in vivo data, no large-scale trials; restricted to lab-scale. Advanced detection (e.g., HPLC-MS) for safety/efficacy.	[95–97]
Applications & potential	Sustainable biopolymer for sustained delivery, tissue engineering.	Oncology targeting, side-effect mitigation; viable for medicine/engineering.	Translational gaps: scale to GMP production, multi-model in vivo studies, Phase I trials.	[25, 65, 89, 98–100]

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AB: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Visualization, Writing—original draft. YA: Resources, Methodology, Software, Validation, Writing—review & editing. TKB: Conceptualization, Software, Supervision, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. MTI: Conceptualization, Supervision, Project administration, Writing—review & editing. All authors read and approved the submitted version.

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The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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