Functionalization, mechanical properties, and applications of decellularized plant tissues.
| Plant tissue | Application | Functionalization | Mechanical properties | Tested in vitro/in vivo |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Apple | Bone tissue engineering [23, 73], probiotic delivery [74], liver tissue engineering [75] | None | YM = 1.1 ± 0.1 kPa [23], APD = ~310 µm [74] | In vivo |
| Bone tissue engineering [23] | Collagen | YM = 2.2 ± 0.2 kPa [23] | In vitro | |
| Bone tissue engineering [23] | Glutaralahyde | YM = 4.1 ± 0.3 kPa [23] | In vitro | |
| Alstroemeria stem | Peripheral nerve healing [76] | None | Average elongation = 7.95%, σmax = 0.02676 N/mm2 | In vivo |
| GelMA | Average elongation = 4.92%, σmax = 0.02204 N/mm2 | In vivo | ||
| Asparagus officinalis | Neural stem cell culture [77] | Poly-L-ornithine | EM = 128 ± 20 kPa, average pore diameter of 39 ± 15 µm | In vitro |
| Bamboo stem | Bone tissue engineering [32] | None | Pore size = 20–150 µm, CS = 1.52 ± 0.346 MPa | In vivo |
| Oxidation (sodium periodate) | CS = 0.6 ± 0.045 MPa | In vivo | ||
| Borassus flabellider endosperm | Bone tissue engineering [66] | None | APD = 19.2 µm, Porosity = 75.84 ± 2.75%, CM = 0.59 ± 0.19 kPa | In vivo |
| APTES (3-aminopropyl-triethoxysilane) | APD = 18.2 µm, Porosity = 79.33 ± 2.05%, CM = 5.73 ± 1.76 kPa | In vivo | ||
| OTS (methyl-terminated octadecyltrichlorosilane) | APD = 7.0 µm, Porosity = 77.96 + 1.27%, CM = 8.33 ± 1.52 KPa | In vivo | ||
| Celery | Skeletal muscle engineering [78] | None | APD = 133 ± 96 μm, Porosity = 70% | In vitro |
| Dill (Anethum graveolens) leaves | Adipose tissue 96modeling [79] | GelMA | YM = 3.55 ± 0.34 kPa, CM = 12.49 ± 1.67 kPa, σmax = 2.19 ± 0.18 kPa, εres = 5.45 ± 0.81% | In vitro |
| Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) leaves | Adipose tissue modeling [79] | GelMA | YM = 4.27 ± 1.16 kPa, CM = 19.86 ± 3.06 kPa, σmax = 3.28 ± 0.62 kPa, εres = 4.22 ± 0.87% | In vitro |
| Green onion | Skeletal muscle engineering [8] | Fibronectin | Groove size: inner (12 μm × 20–30 μm × 10 μm) and outer (9 μm wide × 10–15 μm) | In vitro |
| Leatherleaf viburnum | Cardiac and vascular tissue engineering [50, 80] | SDS decellularization + glutaraldehyde + fibronectin | APD = 13.9 to 15.4 µm [80] | In vitro |
| None + SDS decellularization | APD = 15.8 ± 2.2 µm [80], EM = 4.0 ± 1.4 [50] | In vitro | ||
| None + SDS/EGTA decellularization | APD = 12.9 ± 1.2 μm [80], EM = 3.9 ± 0.3 MPa [50] | In vitro | ||
| None + tergitol/EGTA decellularization | EM = 2.7 ± 0.9 MPa [50] | In vitro | ||
| None + tergitol/SDS decellularization | EM = 2.8 ± 0.2 MPa [50] | In vitro | ||
| Lotus Petiole | Neural cell alignment monitoring [81] | Graphene oxide | Not characterized | In vitro |
| Lotus stem | Bone tissue engineering [82] | None | Porosity = 88.66 ± 1.76%, CS = 0.49 ± 0.02 MPa, TS = 0.20 ± 0.05 MPa, APD ≈ 130 µm | In vivo |
| Mineralization with CaCl2 and K2HPO4, pH 11 ammonia incubation | Porosity = 67.33 ± 0.88%, CS = 8.54 ± 0.36 MPa, TS = 1.24 ± 0.03 MPa, APD ≈ 130 µm | In vivo | ||
| Mineralization (as above) + PVA hydrogel + manganese carbonyl (MnCO)-loaded mesoporous polydopamine (mPDA) microspheres | Porosity = 64 ± 2.64%, CS = 12.9 ± 0.75 MPa, TS = 1.5 ± 0.1 MPa, APD ≈ 130 µm | In vivo | ||
| Magnolia leaf | Muse cell culture [9] | None | In vitro | |
| Manicaria saccifera palm | Smooth muscle cell, fibroblast, mesenchymal stem cell culture [83] | Alkali treated | YM = 8.22 ± 4.86 GPa, TS = 72.38 ± 45.19 MPa | In vitro |
| Alkali treated + autoclaved | YM = 9.51 ± 4.38 GPa, TS = 68.62 ± 27.93 MPa | In vitro | ||
| Nopal (Opuntia ficus-indica) | Regenerative dentistry; human dental pulp stem cells culture [84] | None | APD = 252 ± 77 μm, TS = 11.8 ± 0.5 MPa | In vitro |
| Onion skin and onion leaf | Vascular patch engineering [85] | Polylactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA)-based rapamycin nanoparticles | APD = 252 ± 77 μm, TS = 11.8 ± 0.5 MPa | In vivo |
| Parsley stems | Cardiac tissue engineering [86] | None | Burst Pressure = 403.4 ± 83.5 mmHg, EM = 5.182 ± 0.856 MPa, TS = 0.471 ± 0.044 MPa | In vitro |
| Persian walnut (Juglans regia) leaf | Wound dressing [87] | None | TS = 0.60 ± 0.23 MPa, YM = 4.17 ± 0.91 MPa, Porosity = 67.01 ± 1.65% | In vivo |
| Phoenix dactyliferous endocarp | Bone tissue engineering [67] | Grape seed proanthocyanidin extract | APD = ~52 μm, Porosity = ~27% | In vitro |
| Pumpkin | Bone tissue engineering; wound healing [69] | None | APD = 80.96 μm, CS = 0.5633 ± 0.0013 MPa, YM = 3.5 ± 0.05 MPa, TS = 1.42 ± 0.19 MPa | In vivo |
| Magnesium oxide nanoparticles | APD = 70.83 μm, CS = 0.5721 ± 0.0003 MPa, YM = 4.2 ± 0.07 MPa, TS = 1.71 ± 0.31 MPa | In vivo | ||
| Spinach leaf | Cardiovascular tissue engineering [26, 65]; bone tissue engineering [88]; brain vasculature and capillary modeling [89, 90] | None | Maximum Tangent Modulus = 0.3 ± 0.15 [26], APD = 8.7 nm [88] | In vitro |
| Cardiovascular tissue engineering [26, 65] | Fibronectin | Not quantified | In vitro | |
| Cardiovascular tissue engineering [65] | Type IV collagen | Not quantified | In vitro | |
| Sorghum leaves | Skeletal muscle engineering [72] | Poly(PEGMEMA-r-VDM-r-GMA) copolymer + RGD peptide | Not quantified | In vitro |
| Tomato thorny leaf | Tumor microenvironment modeling [91] | Plasma treated with a tabletop plasma cleaner | APD = 6 nm, Total Pore Volume = 0.013 (cm3·g−1) | In vitro |
YM: Young’s Modulus, CM: compressive modulus, EM: Elastic Modulus, TS: Tensile Strength, APD: Average Pore Diameter, σmax: maximum stress, εres: residual strain, GelMA: gelatin methacryloyl.